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» EDITION  • EOR  • 1891  • 

• • • THO  • • 

- 

• 

••• 

E-GIA! 

nn 

••• 

CYCLOPEDIA 


AND 


1,000,001  FIGURES  AND  FACTS 


By  K.  L.  ARMSXRONQ. 


With  Eighty-Two  Colored  Maps  and  Plates. 


“Which  — if  you  but  open  — 

You  will  be  unwilling, 

For  many  a shilling, 

To  part  with  the  profit 
Which  you  shall  have  of  it.” 

— The  Key  to  Unkncnon  Knowledge. 

CHICAGO: 

WESTERN  RURAL, 

MILTON  GEORGE,,  Publisher.  . 


' I J II 

“ The  era  is  fast  afproacJiing  'when  no  'writer  'will  he  read 
by  the  majority  except  those  who  can  effect  for  bales  of  manu- 
,script  'w hat  the  hydrostatic,  screw  performs  for  hales  of  cotton 
[ — condense  into  a period  what  before  occupied  a page H'' — Cotter. 


Copyright,  1889,  by  Francis  J,  Schulte.^ 


Oil 


f : SUMMARY  OF  PRINCIPAL  CONTENTS. 

J^or  alphabetical  index  see  page 


4 


N 


Gems  of  Knowledge— Handj  Facts  to  Settle  Arguments 
Loisette’s  System  of  Memory — The  Art  of  Never  Forgetting 
500  Errors  Corrected— Concise  Rules  in  Grammar,  Spelling 

and  Pronunciation  . . . . : 

A Dictionary  of  Words  often  Mispronounced  .... 

Punctuation 

The  Use  of  Capital  Letters 

How  to  Write  a Letter 

. Synonyms  and  Antonyms— A Dictionary  of  12,000  Words 
of  Similar  and  Contrary  Meaning  ...... 

.The  World  and  the  Universe — Facts  Astronomical,  Geo- 
graphical,  Historical  and  Statistical  . . . ' . 

^Our  Globe  and  Its  Inhabitants  . 

^^he  World’s  Principal  Countries 

A Europe 

Asia 


PAGE 

. 9 

20 


31 

38 

41 

42 
42 

44 


D'^eania 

1 Ica 

N'  h America  ... 

' America 

^olai  '"ploration  . 

.^he  World’s  Largest  Cities 
"pities  of  the  U.  S 


over  20,000  Population 

v^ames  and  mottoes  of  States,  Geographical  Nicknames,  etc 
^U.  S.  Statistics  in  a Nutshell 
^U.  S.  Political  History  in  Brief 
^.Presidents  of  the  United  States,  etc. 

SfVVars  of  the  United  States  . . . 

^^^he  Civil  War  of  1861-6:; 
i^tatistics  of  Wars  the  World  Over 
^The  Decisive  Battles  of  Historv 

^ Slavery  and  Serfdom 

Interesting  Miscellaneous  Information  . 

A History  of  Organized  Labor  in  the  U.  S.  . 

Parliamentary  Law — 250  Points  of  Order  Decided  at  Sight  190 

riii) 


G3 

G5 

G8 

G9 

84 

92 

101 

108 

117 

125 

128 

129 

133 

141 

149 

1G9 

170 

171 

177 

178 
179 
181 
188 


SUMMARY  OF  PRINCIPAL  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

The  World’s  History  at  a Glance — Compact  Diagrams  (in 
colors)  suggesting  Dates,  Names  and  Events,  and  De- 
signed for  Ready  Reference  and  to  Aid  the  Memory  . 193 

Interesting  Facts  of  Science  and  Statistics 225 

Some  of  Nature’s  Wonders  ........  231 

Legal  Advice — Business  Law  in  Brief 232 

Business  and  Legal  Forms 260 

Interest  Laws  and  Statutes  of  Limitations 265 

U.  S.  Mining  Laws 267 

The  Law  of  Copyright 269 

Trademarks  and  Patents 270 

Principal  Points  of  Constitutional  Law 273 

Voting  and  Naturalization 275 

The  Presidential  Election — The  Electoral  College  and  tlie 

Presidential  Succession 276 

Qualification  of  Voters  in  all  the  States 278 

The  Australian  Ballot  System  ........  279 

Presidential  Election  Statistics 279 

The  Civil  Service 281 

Public  Lands  and  Homestead  Laws 282 

Stage  Favorites — Professional  and  Private  Names  . . . 283 

Points  of  Criminal  Law 284 

The  Tariff — U.  S.  Customs  Duties 285 

The  Free  List — Articles  Free  of  Duty 287 

Stock  Investments  Explained 289 

Insolvency  and  Proceedings  in  Bankruptcy  ....  292 

Terms  used  on  ’Change 292 

The  Inter-State  Commerce  Law 293 

Insurance — Valuable  Information  as  to  Companies  and 

Policies  . 295 

The  Internal  Revenue 298 

Hints  to  Advertisers 299 

How  to  Collect  a Debt 299 

How  to  Make  Change  Qiiickly 390 

Compound  Interest  Tables . . 300 

Short  Interest  Rules *^61 

How  to  Detect  Counterfeit  Money 301 

Bankers’ I'ime  Table 302 

(iv) 


SUMMARY  OF  PRINCIPAL  CONTENTS. 


Facts  about  Railroads  and  Transportation 303 

Train  Management 303 

Railroad  Signals  (Illustrated) 304 

Speed  on  Railroads — Steamboating 305 

Facts  about  the  Thermometer 306 

Freezing,  Fusing  and  Boiling  Points 307 

Freezing  Mixtures  without  Ice 308 

Physical  Exercise — How  to  Develop  the  Various  Muscles 

of  the  Human  Body  (Illustrated.) 309 

Medicine  and  Hygiene — Diseases  and  their  Remedies — Pre- 
scriptions by  Eminent  Practitioners 312 

Homoeopathy 319 

Contagious  Diseases 324 

Artificial  Feeding  of  Infants 325 

Accidents  and  Emergencies — What  to  Do 326 

Poisons  and  their  Antidotes 329 

Doses  of  Medicine,  etc 330 

Relative  Value  of  Various  Foods,  etc 331 

Digestion  of  Foods,  etc 332 

Useful  Recipes,  Trade  Secrets,  etc 333 

Three  Hundred  Facts  about  Poultry 341 

How  to  Tell  the  Age  of  Various  Farm  Animals  . . . 344 

Medicines  for  the  Horse 345 

The  Seven  Bibles  of  the  World 346 

Canary  Birds — How  to  keep  them  healthy  and  in  good 

song 347 

Value  of  Foreign  Money 347 

Weights  and  Measures 348 

Practical  Calculations:  Shortcuts  in  Arithmetic — Handy 

Tables  for  Ready  Reckoning 350 

Log  and  Lumber  Tables,  etc 354 

Miscellaneous  Tables 358 

Facts  for  Builders 361 

Facts  for  Bricklayers  and  Plasterers 362 

How  to  Use  Cement 365 

Useful  Tables  for  Plumbers,  etc.  366 

Hints  for  Roofers  ............  368 

Facts  about  Gas 369 


(v; 


SUM  MART  OF  PRINCIPAL  CONTENTS. 

i I PAGE 

Painting  and  Glazing  370 

Carpenters’  Work  and  Measuring 371 

Iron  Tables,  Tables  for  Metal-workers,  etc 378 

Areas  of  Circles 383 

Circumferences  of  Circles 384 

Handy  Facts  for  Architects  and  Builders 385 

Horse  Power  of  Engines — Belting,  etc 386 

Transmission  of  Power  by  Wire  Ropes 388 

Useful  Hydraulic  Information 380 

Boilers,  Chimneys,  etc 391 

Specific  Gravity,  Tensile  and  Transverse  Strength,  etc.  . 394 

Table  of  Squares  and  Cubes  of  all  Numbers  from  i to  500  . 396 

Wedding  Anniversaries  and  Birthdays 400 

Natural  Sines,  etc 401 

Useful  Information  for  Printers,  Paper  Dealers,  Pub- 
lishers, etc . 402 

Weather  Forecasts 407 

Wind  and  Weather  Signals  (Illustrated) 411 

The  Language  of  Flowers 413 

The  Language  of  Gems 414 

The  Wonders  of  Electricity — The  Telephone,  Phonograph, 

Graphophone,  Electric  Light,  etc.,  etc.  . . . .415 

Names  and  their  Meaning:  Christian.  Names  of  Men  and 

Women 420 

The  Standard  Silver  Dollar 424 

Standard  Time 424 

Theosophy,  Buddhism  and  Mysticism 425 

The  Evolution  Theorj^ 426 

The  Mind  Cure 426 

Gems  of  Poetry 428 

Misquotations 432 

Postal  Information 433 

GEOGRAPHICAL  AND  STATISTICAL  MAPS. 

Map  of  North  and  South  America 66 

Map  of  Ontario 67 

Map  of  Quebec 70 

Map  of  Manitoba 71 

(vi) 


SUMMARY  OF  PRINCIPAL  CONf'EiltS. 

V'  I 

Statistical  Map  of  Alaska . 71 

Statistical  Map  of  Alabama , . . 75 

Statistical  Map  of  Arizona  78 

Statistical  Map  of  Arkansas 70 

Statistical  Map  of  California 82 

Statistical  Map  of  Colorado 83 

Statistical  Map  of  Connecticut 86 

Statistical  Map  of  North  and  South  Dakota  ....  87 

Statistical  Map  of  Delaware 90 

Statistical  Map  of  Florida 91 

Statistical  Map  of  Georgia 94 

Statistical  Map  of  Idaho 95 

Statistical  Map  of  Illinois 98 

Statistical  Map  of  Indiana 99 

Statistical  Map  of  the  Indian  Territory 102 

Statistical  Map  of  Iowa . 103 

Statistical  Map  of  Kansas 100 

Statistical  Map  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  ....  107 

Statistical  Map  of  Louisiana IIG 

Statistical  Map  of  Maine Ill 

Statistical  Map  of  Maryland 114 

Statistical  Map  of  Massachusetts 115 

Statistical  Map  of  Michigan 118 

Statistical  Map  of  Minnesota 119 

Statistical  Map  of  Mississippi 122 

Statistical  Map  of  Missouri 123 

Statistical  Map  of  Montana 126 

Statistical  Map  of  Nebraska 12) 

Statistical  Map  of  Nevada 130 

Statistical  Map  of  New  Hampshire  and  Vermont.  . . 134 

Statistical  Map  of  New  Jersey  134 

Statistical  Map  of  New  Mexico 135 

Statistical  Map  of  New  York 13S 

Statistical  Map  of  North  and  South  Carolina ....  139 

Statistical  Map  of  Ohio  142 

Statistical  Map  of  Oregon 143 

Statistical  Map  of  Pennsylvania 146 

(vii) 


SUMMARr  OF  PRINCIPAL  CONTENTS. 

istatisdcal  Map  of  Rhod^  Island ^147 

Statistical  Map  of  Texas , 150 

Statistical  Map  of  Utah 454 

Statistical  Map  of  Virginia  and  West  Virginia  ....  454 

Statistical  Map  of  Washington . 155 

Statistical  Map  of  Wisconsin 458 

Statistical  Map  of  Wyoming 459 

Map  of  Mexico 162 

Map  of  Central  America  and  the  West  Indies  . . . 163 

CHARTS  AND  DIAGRAMS. 

THE  world’s  history  AT  A GLANCE. 

From  Abraham  to  Cyrus , 103 

From  Cyrus  to  Alexander 194 

From  Alexander  to  Augustus 195 

From  Augustus  to  Charlemagne 196 

From  Charlemagne  to  Napoleon 108 

From  Napoleon  to  the  Present  Time 201 

America  : The  Colonies 203 

The  United  States 204 

STATISTICAL  AND  HISTORICAL  DIAGRAMS. 

The  European  Balance  of  Power 209 

The  World’s  Food  Supply 210 

The  Wealth  of  Nations  . 211 

Our  Foreign  Trade 212 

Growth  of  U.  S.  Population  since  1820 213 

Religion  in  the  United  States 214 

Density  of  Population  in  the  United  States 215 

The  Climates  of  the  United  States 216 

Consumption  of  Wine,  Malt  Liquors  and  Distilled  Spirits 

in  the  United  States 217 

Comparative  Growth  of  Languages  during  Eighty -two  Years  218 
Pensions  paid  by  the  United  States  since  1865  . . . 219 

Farm  Animals  throughout  the  World 220 

Acquisition  of  Territory  by  the  United  States  . . . , . 221 

Duration  of  Life . 222 

The  World’s  Great  Fairs 223 

Crops  in  the  United  States 224 

(viii) 


This  rule  to  all  when  I am  dead: 
Be  sure  you'' re  rights  then  go  ahead. 


— Davy  Crockett. 


GEMS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 


Handy  Facts  to  Settle  Many  Arguments. 

London  plague  in  1665. 

Telephone  invented,  1861. 

There  are  2,750  languages. 

Two  persons  die  every  second. 

Sound  moves  743  miles  per  hour. 

Chinese  invented  paper,  170  B.C. 

A square  mile  contains  640  acres. 

A barrel  of  pork  weighs  200  pounds. 

Hawks  can  fly  150  ijiiles  in  one  hour. 

Watches  were  first  constructed  in  1476. 

Chinese  in  United  States  in  1880,  105,613. 

Rome  was  founded  by  Romulus,  752  B.C. 

Gold  was  discovered  in  California  in  1848. 

Phonograph  invented  by  T.  A.  Edison,  1877. 

The  first  balloon  ascended  from  Lyons,  France,  1783. 

The  first  fire  insurance  office  in  America,  Boston,  1724. 

Jet  is  found  along  the  coast  of  Yorkshire,  Eng.,  near  Whitby. 
Napoleon  I.  crowned  emperor,  1804;  Helena,  1820. 

Electric  light  invented  by  Lodyguin  and  Kossloflf,  at  London, 
1874- 

Harvard  is  the  oldest  college  in  the  United  States;  established 
in  1638. 

' War  declared  with  Great  Britain,  June  19,  1812;  peace,  Feb. 
18^1815. 

Until  i 776  cotton  spinning  was  performed  by  the  hand  spin- 
ning’-wheel. 

Measure  209  feet  on  each  side  and  you  will  have  a square  acru 

within  an  inch. 

-Postage  stamps  first  came  into  use  in  England  in  the  year  184c ; 
in  the  United  States,  in  1847. 

The  highest  range  of  mountains  are  the  Himalayas,  the  mean 
elevation  being  from  16,000  to  18,000  feet. 

The  largest  inland  sea  is  the  Caspian,  between  Europe  and 
Asia,' being  700  miles  long  and  270  miles  wide. 

The  term  “Almighty  Dollar”  originated  with  Washington 
Irving,  as  a satire  on  the  American  love  for  gain. 


9 


GEMS  OF  KNO  W LEDGE. 


Envelopes  were  first  used'in  1839. 

Telescopes  were  invented  in  1590. 

Iron  horseshoes  were  made  in  481. 

A barrel  of  fiour  weighs  196  pounds. 

A hand  (horse  measure)  is  four  inches. 

A rifie  ball  moves  1,000  miles  per  hour. 

First  steamer  crossed  the  Atlantic,  1819. 

Assassination  of  Lincoln,  April  14,  1865. 

German  empire  re-established,  Jan.  18,  1871. 

Storm  clouds  move  thirty-six  miles  an  hour. 

First  subscription  library,  Philadelphia,  1731. 

Dark  Ages,  from  the  6th  to  the  14th  century. 

The  Latin  tongue  became  obsolete  about  580. 

The  great  London  fire  occurred  Sept.  26,  1666. 

The  value  of  a ton  of  pure  gold  is  $602,799.21. 

Ether  was  first  used  for  surgical  purposes  in  1844. 

Ignatius  Loyola  founded  the  order  of  Jesuits,  1541. 

First  authentic  use  of  organs,  755;  in  England,  951. 

The  first  newspaper  advertisement  appeared  in  1652. 

Cork  is  the  bark  taken  from  a species  of  the  oak  tree. 
Benjamin  Franklin  used  the  first  lightning  rods,  1752. 

Glass  windows  (colored)  were  used  in  the  8th  centur3^ 
Authentic  history  of  China  commenced  3,000  years  B.C. 
Introduction  of  homoeopathy  into  the  United  States,  ,1825. 
Spectacles  were  invented  by  an  Italian  in  the  13th  century. 
Medicine  was  introduced  into  Rome  from  Greece,  200  B.C. 
First  electric  telegraph,  Paddington  to  Brayton,  Eng.,  1835. 
The  Chaldeans  were  the  first  people  who  worked  in  metals. 
First  life  insurance,  in  London,  1772;  in  America,  Phila.,  1812. 
Egyptian  pottery  is  the  oldest  known;  dates  from  2,000  B.C. 
Julius  Caesar  invaded  Britain,  55  B.C.;  assassinated,  44  B.C. 
Soap  was  first  manufactured  in  England  in  the  i6th  century. 
The  largest  free  territorial  government  is  the  United  States. 
First  photographs  produced  in  England,  1802;  perfected,  1841. 
First  marine  insurance,  A.  D.  533;  England,  1598;  America, 
1721. 

Professor  Oersted,  Copenhagen,  discovered  electro-magnetism," 
in  1819. 

First  American  express.  New  York  to  Boston — W.  F. 

Hamden. 

Glass  windows  were  first  introduced  into  England  in  the 

8th  century. 

Chicago  is  little  more  than  fifty  years  old,  and  is  the  eighteenth 
city  of  the  world. 

Glass  was  made  in  Egypt,  3,000  B.C.;  earliest  date  of  trans- 
parent glass,  719  B.C. 

First  public  schools  in  America  were  established  in  the  New 
England  States  about  1642. 

10 


GEMS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 


First  Atlantic  cable  operated,  1858. 

A barrel  of  rice  weighs  600  pounds. 

The  first  steel  pen  was  made  in  1830. 

Light  moves  187,000  miles  per  second. 

Slow  rivers  flow  seven  miles  per  hour. 

The  first  lucifer  match  was  made  in  1829. 

A storm  moves  thirty -six  miles  per  hour. 

Battles  of  Bunker  Hill  and  Lexington,  1775. 

The  largest  island  in  the  world  is  Australia. 

First  musical  notes  used,  1338;  printed,  1502. 

Kerosene  was  first  used  for  illuminating  in  1826. 

National  banks  first  established  in  United  States,  1816. 

Slavery  in  the  United  States  was  begun  at  Jamestown  in  1619 
First  postoffice  established,  between  Vienna  and  Brussels. 
1516. 

The  Alexandrian  Library  contained  400,000  valuable  books 
47 

Moscow,  Russia,  has  the  largest  bell  in  the  world,  432,00c 

pounds. 

The  highest  denomination  of  United  States  legal  tender  notei 
is  $10,000. 

The  electric  eel  is  only  found  in  the  northern  rivers  of  South 
America. 

Columbus  discovered  America,  Oct.  12,  1492;  the  Northmen 
A.  D.  985. 

The  first  theater  in  the  United  States  was  at  Williamsburg 
Va.,  1752. 

Congress  declared  war  with  Mexico,  May  13,  1846;  closec 
Feb.  2,  1848. 

The  first  complete  sewing  machine  was  patented  by  Eliaf 
Howe,  Jr.,  in  1846. 

London  is  the  largest  city  in  the  world,  containing  a popula- 
tion of  4,764,312  persons. 

First  cotton  raised  in  the  United  States  was  in  Virginia,  in 
2621;  first  exported,  1747. 

The  largest  university  is  Oxford,  in  England.  It  consists  of 

twenty-one  colleges  and  five  halls. 

First  sugar-cane  cultivated  in  the  United  States,  near  New 
Orleans,  1751;  first  sugar-mill,  1758. 

First  telegraph  in  operation  in  America  was  between  Wash- 
ington and  Baltimore,  May  27,  1844. 

The  first  illumination  with  gas  was  in  Cornwall,  Eng.,  1792; 
in  the  United  States,  at  Boston,  1822. 

Printing  was  known  in  China  in  the  6th  century;  introduced 
into  England  about  1474;  America,  1536. 

The  great  wall  of  China,  built  200  B.C.,  is  1,250  miles  in  length, 

20  feet  high,  and  25  feet  thick  at  the  base. 

Glass  mirrors  first  made  by  Venetians  in  the  13th  century. 
Polished  metal  was  used  before  that  time. 

Meerschaum  means  “froth  of  the  sea.”  It  is  white  and  soft 

when  dug  from  the  earth,  but  soon  hardens. 

11 


GEMS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 


America  was  discovered  in  1492. 

A firkin  of  butter  weighs  56  pounds. 

A span  is  ten  and  seven-eighths  inches. 

Pianoforte  invented  in  Italy  about  1710. 

The  value  of  a ton  of  silver  is  $37,704.84. 

First  watches  made  in  Nuremberg,  1476. 

A hurricane  moves  eighty  miles  per  hour. 

Modern  needles  first  came  into  use  in  1545. 

Electricity  moves  288,000  miles  per  second. 

French  and  Indian  War  in  America,  1754. 

The  first  horse  railroad  was  built  in  1826-7. 

The  average  human  life  is  thirty- three  years. 

Coaches  were  first  used  in  England  in  1569. 

French  Revolution,  1789;  Reign  of  Terror,  1793. 

$1,000,000  gold  coin  weigh  3,685.8  lbs.  avoirdupois. 

Mormons  arrived  at  Salt  Lake  Valley,  Utah,  Julj^  24,  1847. 
Experiments  in  electric  lighting,  by  Thomas  A.  Edison,  1878-80. 
Daguerre  and  Nieper  invented  the  process  of  daguerreotype, 
.839- 

The  largest  cavern  in  the  world  is  the  Mammoth  Cave,  Ken- 

ucky. 

First  American  library  founded  at  Harvard  College,  Cam- 
bridge, 1638. 

The  first  iron  ore  discovered  in  this  country  was  found  in  Vir- 
ginia in  1715. 

“ Bravest  of  the  Brave  ” was  the  title  given  to  Marshal  Ney  at 

?riedland,  1807. 

The  first  steam  engine  on  this  continent  was  brought  from 
England  in  1753. 

The  most  extensive  park  is  Deer  Park  in  Denmark.  It  con- 
:ains  4,200  acres. 

Books  in  their  present  form  were  invented  by  Attains,  king  of 
Pergamus,  in  887. 

Robert  Raikes  established  the  first  Sunday-school,  at  Glou- 
:ester,  Eng.,  1781. 

Albert  Durer  gave  the  world  a prophecy  of  future  wood 

engraving  in  1527. 

St.  Augustine,  oldest  city  in,  the  United  States,  founded  by 
the  Spaniards,  1565. 

Jamestown,  Va.,  founded,  1607;  first  permanent  English  set- 
tlement in  America. 

The  first  volunteer  fire  company  in  the  United  States  was 
at  Philadelphia,  1736. 

Oberlin  College,  Ohio,  was  the  first  in  the  United  States  that 

admitted  female  students. 

The  first  knives  were  used  in  England,  and  the  first  wheeled 
carriages  in  France  in  1559. 

The  largest  park  in  the  United  States  is  Fairmount,  at  Phila- 
delphia, ana  contains  2,740  acres. 


12 


GEMS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 


The  highest  natural  bridge  in  the  world  is  at  Rockbridge,  Vir- 

ginia, being  200  feet  high  to  the  bottom  of  the  arch. 

I The  largest  circulation  of  paper  money  is  that  of  the  United 

States,  being  700  millions,  while  Russia  has  670  millions. 

The  largest  insurance  company  in  the  world  is  the  Mutual 

Life  of  New  York  City,  having  cash  assets  of  ,$108,000,000. 

The  largest  empire  in  the  world  is  that  of  Great  Britain,  being 

8,557,658  square  miles,  and  more  than  a sixth  part  of  the  globe. 

The  first  electrical  signal  ever  transmitted  between  Europe  and 

America  passed  over  the  Field  submarine  cable  on  Aug.  5,  1858. 

The  longest  tunnel  in  the  world  is  St.  Gothard,  on  the  line  of 

the  railroad  oetween  Lucerne  and  Milan,  being  9}^^  miles  in  length. 

The  loftiest  active  volcano  is  Popocatapetl.  It  is  17,784  feet 

high,  and  has  a crater  three  miles  in  circumference  and  1,000  feet  deep. 

Burnt  brick  were  known  to  have  been  used  in  building  the 

Tower  of  Babel.  They  were  introduced  into  England  by  the  Romans. 

The  most  remarkable  echo  known  is  that  in  the  castle  of  Simon - 
etta,  two  miles  from  Milan.  It  repeats  the  echo  of  a pistol  sixty  times. 
The  largest  volcano  in  the  world  is  Etna.  Its  base  is  90  miles 

in  circumference;  its  cone  11,000  feet  high.  Its  first  eruption  occurred  474 
B.C. 

The  largest  tree  in  the  world,  as  yet  discovered,  is  in  Tulare 
County,  California.  It  is  275  feet  high,  and  106  feet  in  circumference  at  its 
base. 

The  largest  desert  is  Sahara,  in  Northern  Africa.  Its  length 
is  3,000  miles  and  breadth  900  miles;  having  an  area  of  2,000,000  square 
miles. 

The  largest  suspension  bridge  is  the  Brooklyn.  The  length  of 
the  main  span  is  1,595  feet  6 inches.  The  entire  length  of  the  bridge  is 
5,989  feet. 

The  first  deaf  and  dumb  asylum  was  founded  in  England,  by 

Thomas  Braidwood,  1760;  and  the  first  in  the  United  States  was  at  Hart- 
ford, 1817. 

The  largest  diamond  in  the  world  is  the  Braganza,  being  a 

part  of  the  Portuguese  jewels.  It  weighs  1,880  carats.  It  was  found  in 
Brazil  in  1741. 

The  grade  of  titles  in  Great  Britain  stands  in  the  following 
order  from  the  highest:  A Prince,  Duke,  Marquis,  Earl , Viscount,  Baron, 
Baronet,  Knight. 

The  “Valley  of  Death,”  in  the  island  of  Java,  is  simply  the 
crater  of  an  extinct  volcano,  filled  with  carbonic-acid  gas.  It  is  half  a mile 
in  circumference. 

The  city  of  Amsterdam,  Holland,  is  built  upon  piles  djdven 
into  the  ground.  It  is  intersected  by  nu  merous  canals,  crossed  by  nearly 
three  hundred  bridges. 

Coal  was  used  as  fuel  in  England  as  early  852,  and  in  1234 

the  first  charter  to  dig  for  it  was  granted  by  Henry  HI.  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

Tobacco  was  discovered  in  San  Domingo  in  1496;  afterwards 
by  the  Spaniards  in  Yucatan  in  1520.  It  was  introduced  in  France  in  1560, 
and  into  England  in  1583. 

The  present  national  colors  of  the  United  States  were  not 
adopted  by  Congress  until  i777*  The  Hag  was  fi^-st  used  by  Washington  at 
Cambridge,  January  i,  1776. 

1:1 


GEMS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 


Paris  was  known  as  Liitetia  until  1184^  when  the  name  of  the 

^reat  French  capital  was  changed  to  that  which  it  has  borne  ever  since. 

The  longest  span  of  wire  in  the  world  is  used  for  a telegraph 
in  India  over  the  river  Ristuah.  It  is  over  6,000  feet,  and  is  stretched  be- 
tween two  hills,  1,200  feet  high. 

The  largest  library  in  the  world  is  in  Paris,  founded  by  Louis 
XIV.  It  contains  1,4^,000  volumes,  175,000  manuscripts,  300^000  maps  and 
charts,  and  150,000  coins  and  medals. 

The  tallest  man  was  John  Hale,  of  Lancashire,  England,  who 
was  nine  feet  six  inches  in  height.  His  hand  was  seventeen  inches  long 
and  eight  and  one-half  inches  broad. 

In  round  numbers,  the  weight  of  $1,000,000  in  standard  gold 

coin  is  iM  tons;  standard  silver  coin,  2^  tons;  subsidiary  silver  coin,  25 
tons;  minor  coin,  5-cent  nickel,  100  tons. 

The  part  of  United  States  territory  most  recently  acquired 

is  the  island  of  San  Juan,  near  Vancouver’s  Island.  It  was  evacuated  by 
England  at  the  close  of  November,  1873. 

The  highest  monument  in  the  world  is  the  W ashington  monu- 
ment, being  555  feet.  The  highest  structure  of  any  kind  is  the  Eiffel 
Tower,  Paris,  finished  in  1889  and  989  feet  high. 

It  is  claimed  that  crows,  eagles,  ravens  and  swans  live  to  be  100 

years  old;  herons,  59;  parrots,  60;  pelicans  and  geese,  50;  skylarks, 30;  spar- 
row hawks, 40;  peacocks,  canaries  and  cranes,  24. 

The  greatest  cataract  in  the  world  is  Niagara,  the  height  of  the 
American  Falls  being  165  feet.  The  highest  fall  of  water  in  the  world  is 
that  of  the  Yosemite  in  California,  being  2,550  feet. 

The  most  ancient  catacombs  are  those  of  the  Theban  kings, 

begun  4,000  years  ago.  The  catacombs  of  Rome  contain  the  remains  of 
about  6,000,000  human  beings;  those  of  Paris,  3,000,000. 

The  quickest  passage  ever  made  across  the  Atlantic  was  that 

')f  the  steamer  Etruria,  of  the  Cunard  line,  being  6 days  5 hours  and  30 
ninutes  from  New  York  to  Queenstown  ; the  distance  being  2,850  miles. 
There  has  been  no  irregularity  in  the  recurrence  of  leap  j^ear 

Wery  four  years  since  1800,  and  will  be  none  until  1900,  which^will  be  a 
common  year,  although  it  will  come  fourth  after  the  preceding  leap  year. 

The  first  English  newspaper  was  the  English  Mercury^  issued 
in  the  reign  of  Qiieen  Elizabeth,  and  was  issued  in  the  shape  of  a 
pamphlet.  The  of  Venice  was  the  original  model  of  the  modern 

newspaper. 

The  Mormon  Church  in  Utah  shows  a membership  of  127,294 
—23,000  families.  The  church  has  12  apostles,  58  patriarchs,  3,885  seventies, 
3,ij53  high  priests,  11,000  elders,  1,500  bishops,  and  4,400  deacons,  being  an 
office  for  each  six  persons. 

The  seven  sages  flourished  in  Greece  in  the  6th  century  B.C. 
They  were  renowned  for  their  maxims  of  life,  and  as  the  authors  of  the 
mottoes  inscribed  in  the  Delphian  Temple.  Their  names  are:  Solon,  Chilo, 
Pittacus,  Bias,  Periander,  Cleobolus,  and  Thales. 

The  largest  stationary  engine  in  the  world  is  at  the  zinc  mines 
at  Frieden ville,  Penn.  The  number  of  gallons  of  water  raised  every 
minute  is  i7,‘;oo.  The  driving  wheels  are  35  feet  in  diameter  and  weigh  40 
tons  each.  “I'lie  cylinder  is  no  inches  in  diameter. 

The  largest  number  of  cattle  ever  received  in  one  year  was 
that  of  Chicago  in  the  year  1884,  being  1,874,984  beeves,  30,223  calves,  5,640,- 
625  hogs,  749,917  sheep,  and  15,625  horses.  It  required  9,000  trains  of  31  cars 
each,  which,  if  coupled  together,  would  reach  2,146  miles. 

14 


GEMS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 


The  estimated  number  of  Christians  in  the  world  is  over  408,- 
000,000;  of  Buddhists,  420,000,000;  of  the  followers  of  Brahma,  180,000,000; 
of  Mohammedans,  150,000,000;  of  Jews,  8,000,000;  of  atheists,  deists,  and  in- 
fidels, 85,000,000;  of  pagans,  50,000,000,  and  of  the  1,100  other  minor  creeds, 
123,000,000. 

The  largest  producing  farm  in  the  world  lies  in  the  southwest 
corner  of  Louisiana,  owned  by  a northern  syndicate.  It  runs  one  hundred 
miles  north  and  south.  The  immense  tract  is  divided  into  convenient  pas- 
tures, with  stations  of  ranches  every  six  miles.  The  fencing  alone  cost 
nearly  $50,000. 

The  “Seven  Wonders  of  the  World”  are  seven  most  remarka- 
ble objects  of  the  ancient  world.  They  are:  The  Pyramids  of  Egpyt, 
Pharos  of  Alexandria,  Walls  and  Hanging  Gardens  of  Babylon,  Temple  of 
Diana  at  Ephesus,  the  Statue  of  the  Olympian  Jupiter,  Mausoleum  of  Arte- 
misia, and  Colossus  of  Rhodes. 

A “monkey  wrench”  is  not  so  named  because  it  is  a handy 

thing  to  monkey  with,  or  for  any  kindred  reason.  “Monkey”  is  not  its 
name  at  all,  but  “Moncky.”  Charles  Moncky,  the  inventor  of  it,  sold  his 
patent  for  $2,000,  and  invested  the  money  in  a house  in  Williamsburgh,  Kings 
County,  N.  Y.,  where  he  now  lives. 

The  Union  arch  of  the  Washington  Aqueduct  is  the  largest 
in  the  world,  being  220  feet ; 20  feet  in  excess  of  the  Chester  arch  across  the 
Dee  in  England,  ^ feet  longer  than  that  of  the  London  Bridge  ; 92  feet 
longer  than  that  at  Neuilly  on.  the  Seine,  and  100  feet  longer  than  that  of 
Waterloo  Bridge.  The  height  of  the  Washington  arch  is  100  feet. 

The  largest  ship  ever  built,  the  Great  Eastern,  recentlv  broken 
to  pieces  and  sold  to  junk  dealers,  was  designed  and  constructed  by  Scott 
Russell,  at  Maxwell,  on  the  Thames.  WorK  on  the  giant  vessel  was  com- 
menced in  May,  1854.  She  was  successfully  launched  January  13,  1858.  The 
launching  alone  occupied  the  time  from  November  3,  1857,  until  the  date 
above  given.  Her  total  length  was  600  feet;  breadth,  118  feet;  total  weight 
when  launched,  12,000  tons.  Her  first  trip  of  any  consequence  was  made  to 
New  York  in  1859-^. 

In  1775  there  were  only  twenty -seven  newspapers  published 

in  the  United  States.  Ten  years  later,  in  1785,  there  were  seven  published 
in  the  English  language  in  Philadelphia  alone,  of  which  one  was  a daily. 
The  oldest  newspaper  published  in  Philadelphia  at  the  time  of  the  Federal 
convention  was  the  Pennsylvania  Gazette^  established  by  Samuel  Keimer, 
in  1728.  The  second  newspaper  in  point  of  age  was  the  Pennsylvania 
Journal,  established  in  1742  by  William  Bradford,  whose  uncle,  Andrew 
Bradford,  established  the  first  newspaper  in  Pennsylvania,  the  American 
Weekly  Mercury.^  in  1719.  Next  in  age,  but  the  first  in  importance,  was  the 
Pennsylvania  Packet.^  established  by  John  Dunlap  in  1771.  In  1784  it  became 
a daily,  being  the  first  daily  newspaper  printed  on  this  continent. 

Statistics  of  twenty  leading  libraries  in  this  country  show  that, 
of  over  $500,000  spent,  a little  over  $170,000  spent  was  devoted  to  books,  while 
other  expenses  consumed  $358,000.  In  the  Mercantile  Library  of  New  York 
city  it  costs  14  cents  to  circulate  a volume;  in  the  Astor^  14^  cents  are  ^pent 
on  each  volume,  or  27  cents  on  each  reader;  in  Columbia  Cfollege  Library, 
2134  cents  per  reader;  in  the  Library  Company  of  Philadelphia,  26  cents  per 
volume,  or  10  cents  per  head.  The  largest  library  in  the  world  is  the  Na- 
tional Library  of  France,  founded  by  Louis  XI  v.,  which  now  contains  i,- 

400.000  books,  300,000  pamphlets,  175,000  manuscripts,  300,000  maps  and  charts, 

150.000  coins  and  medals,  1,300,000  engravings,  and  100,000  portraits.  The 
Library  of  Congress  is  the  largest  in  this  country,  as  it  contained  570,000 
volumes  in  1886.  The  Mercantile  Library  of  Philadelphia  was  the  seventh 
in  point  of  size  in  this  country  in  the  same  year.  There  are  in  the  United 
States  5,338  libraries. 


15 


GEMS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 


The  most  extensive  mines  in  the  world  are  those  of  Freiberg, 

Saxony.  They  were  begun  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  in  1835 the  galleries, 
taken  collectively,  had  reached  the  unprecedented  length  of  123  miles,  a’ 
new  gallery,  begun  in  1838,  had  reached  a length  of  eight  miles  at  the  time 
of  the  census  of  1878.  The  deepest  perpendicidar  mining  shaft  in  the  world 
is  located  at  Prizilram,  Bohemia.  It  is  a lead  mine;  it  was  begun  1832. 
January,  1880,  it  was  3,280  feet  deep.  The  deepest  coal  mine  in  the  world  is 
near  Tourney,  Belgium;  it  is  3, 542  feet  in  depth,  but,  unlike  the  lead  mine 
mentioned  above,  it  is  not  perpendicular.  The  deepest  rock-salt  bore  in  the 
world  is  near  Berlin,  Prussia;  it  is  4,185  feet  deep.  The  deepest  hole  ever 
bored  into  the  earth  is  the  artesian  well  at  Potsdam,  which  is  5,500  feet  in 
depth.  The  deepest  coal  mines  in  England  are  the  Dunkirk  collieries  of 
Lancashire,  which  are  2,824  feet  in  depth.  The  deepest  coal  shaft  in  the 
United  States  is  located  at  Pottsville,  Pa.  In  1885  h had  reached  a depth  of 
1,576  feet.  From  this  great  depth  400  cars,  holding  four  tons  each,  are 
hoisted  daily.  The  deepest  silver  mine  in  the  United  States  is  the  Yellow 
Jacket,  one  of  the  great  Comstock  system  at  Virginia  City,  Nevada;  the 
lower  levels  are  2,700  feet  below  the  hoisting  works. 

The  largest  locomotive  ever  constructed  prior  to  1880  was  that 
made  at  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works  during  the  early  part  of  1879.  It 
was  turned  out  ready  for  use  April  loth  of  that  year  and  named  Uncle  Dick. 
Uncle  Dick  weighed.  130,000  pounds;  was  sixty  feet  from  headlight  to  the 
rear  end  of  the  tender.  He  is  now  at  work  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  & 
Santa  Fe  road.  During  the  year  1883  the  same  works  that  constructed 
Uncle  Dick  turned  out  several  locomotives  for  the  Northern  Pacific  railroad, 
each  weighing  180,000  pounds.  During  the  same  year,  as  if  to  overshadow 
the  Baldwin  works,  the  Central  Pacific  company  caused  to  be  built  at  their 
shops  in  Sacramento,  Cal.,  what  are  really  the  largest  locomotives  in  the 
world.  They  have  eight  drive-wheels  each,  the  cylinders  are  19  inches  in 
diameter,  and  the  stroke  three  feet.  These  engines  weigh,  with  the  tender, 
as  Uncle  Dick’s  weight  was  given,  almost  190,000  pounds.  The  Baldwin 
Works,  in  1889,  completed  for  the  Northern  Pacific  an  engine  weighing, 
with  tender,  225,000  pounds. 

“ Liberty,”  Bartholdi’s  statue,  presented  to  the  United  States 

by  the  French  people  in  1885,  is  the  largest  statue  ever  built.  Its  conception 
is  due  to  the  great  French  sculptor  whose  name  it-bears.  It  is  said  to  be  a 
likeness  of  his  mother.  Eight  years  of  time  were  consumed  in  the  construc- 
tion of  this  gigantic  brazen  image.  Its  weight  is  440,000  pounds,  of  which 
146,000  pounds  are  copper,  the  remainder  iron  and  steel.  The  major  part  of 
the  iron  and  steel  was  used  in  constructing  the  skeleton  frame  work  for  the 
inside.  The  mammoth  electric  light  held  in  the  hand  of  the  giantess  is  305 
feet  above  tide-water.  The  height  of  the  figure  is  K2J4  feet;  the  pedestal 
91  feet,  and  the  foundation  52  feet  and  10  inches.  Forty  persons  can  find 
standing-room  within  the  mighty  head,  which  is  14)4  feet  in  diameter.  A 
six-foot  man  standing  on  the  lower  lip  could  hardly  reach  the  eyes.  The 
index  finger  is  eight  feet  in  length  and  the  nose  3^  feet.  The  Colossus  of 
Rhodes  was  a pigmy  compared  with  this  latter  day  wonder. 

The  largest  stone  bridge  on  the  face  of  the  earth  is  that  finished 
in  May,  1885,  at  Lagang,  China.  Chinese  engineers  had  sole  control  of  its 
construction.  It  crosses  an  arm  of  the  China  Sea,  is  nearly  six  miles  in 
length,  is  composed  entirely  of  stone,  and  has  300  arches,  each  70  feet  high. 
It  is  the  most  colossal  structure  ever  reared  by  man,  yet  we  sneer  at  the 
“heathen  Chinee.”  The  largest  truss  iron  bridge  in  the  world  crosses  the 
Firth  of  Tay,  Scotland.  It  is  18,612  feet  in  length  and  composed  of  eighty- 
five  spans.  The  longest  wooden  bridge  in  the  world  is  that  crossing  Lake 
Ponchartrain,  near  New  Orleans,  La.  It  is  a trestle-work  twenty-one  miles 
in  length,  built  of  cypress  piles  which  have  been  saturated  with  creosote 
oil  to  preserve  them.  The  highest  bridge  in  the  United  States  is  over  Kin- 
zina  Creek,  near  Bradford,  Pa.  It  was  built  in  1882,  has  a total  span  of  2,051 
feet  and  is  301  feet  above  the  creek  bed. 

Ifi 


aE^fS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 


The  “Centennial  ox,”  bred  by  Samuel  Barkley  of  Somerset 

County,  Pa.,  was  the  largest  specimen  of  the  bovine  the  world  has  ever 
seen.  He  weighed  4,900  pounds  the  day  he  arrived  in  Philadelphia.  This 
mountain  of  beef  was  of  mixed  stock,  being  short-horn,  native, ‘‘scrub, 
and  Ayrshi’-e,  the  short-horn  predominating.  After  the  exhibition  was 
ended  the  giant  ox  was  butchered  and  exhibited  as  “sliow  beef”  at  Phila- 
delphia during  the  holidays  of  1876.  A short-horn  steer  weighing  4,100 
pounds  was  slaughtered  at  Detroit  in  1874.  A.  N.  Meal  of  Moberly,  Mo., 
formerly  owned  the  largest  cow  in  the  world.  Mr.  Meal  disposed  of  her  in 
1883,  the  Cole  Circus  Company  being  the  purchasers.  She  weighed  the  day 
of  sale  3,296  pounds.  Mr.  John  Pratt  of  Chase  County,  Kan.,  was  formerly 
the  owner  of  a cow  weighing  3,200  pounds.  She  was  of  the  common  “scrub” 
stock  and  stood  nineteen  hands  high. 

The  great  pyramid  of  Cheops  is  the  largest  structure  of  any 
kind  ever  erected  by  the  hand  of  man.  Its  original  dimensions  at  the  base 
were  764  feet  square,  and  its  perpendicular  height  in  the  highest  point  488 
feet;  it  covers  four  acres,  one  rood,  and  twenty-two  perches  of  ground  and 
has  been  estimated  by  an  eminent  English  architect  to  have  cost  not  less 
than  £30,000,000,  which  in  United  States  currency  would  be  about  $145,200,- 
000.  Internal  evidence  proves  that  the  great  pyramid  was  begun  about  the 
year  2170  B.C.,  about  the  time  of  the  oirth  of  Abraham.  It  is  estimated 
that  about  5,000,000  tons  of  hewn  stone  were  used  in  its  construction,  and 
the  evidence  points  to  the  fact  that  these  stones  were  brought  a distance  of 
about  700  miles  from  quarries  in  Arabia. 

The  largest  and  grandest  temple  of  worship  in  the  world  is 
the  St.  Peter’s  Cathedral  at  Rome.  It  stands  on  the  site  of  Nero’s  circus,  in 
the  northwest  part  of  the  city,  and  is  built  in  form  of  a Latin  cross.  The 
total  length  of  the  interior  is  61234  English  feet;  transept,  446)4  feet;  height 
of  nave,  152)4  feet;  diameter  of  ci^alo,  193  feet;  height  of  dome  from  pave- 
ment to  top  of  cross,  448  feet.  The  great  bell  alone  without  the  hammer 
or  clapper  weighs  18,^0  pounds,  or  over  9)4  tons.  The  foundation  was  laid 
in  1450  A.D.  Forty-three  Popes  lived  and  died  during  the  time  the  work 
was  in  progress.  It  was  dedicated  in  the  year  1826,  but  not  entirely  finished 
until  the  year  1880.  The  cost,  in  round  numbers,  is  set  down  at  $70,000,000, 

The  Capitol  building  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  is  the  largest 

building  in  the  United  States.  The  corner  stone  was  laid  December  18th, 
1793,  by  President  Washington,  assisted  by  other  Masons.  It  was  partially 
destroyed  by  the  British  in  1814.  The  present  dome  was  begun  in  1855  and 
finished  in  1863.  The  flag  of  the  United  States  first  floated  from  it  Decem- 
ber i2th,  1863.  The  cost  of  the  entire  building  has  been  something  over  $13,- 
000,000.  Its  length  is  ^15  feet  4 inches;  width,  324  feet.  It  covers  3^ 
acres  of  ground.  The  distance  from  the  ground  to  the  top  of  the  dome  is 
307)4  feet:  diameter  of  the  dome,  135)4  — making  fifth  as  to  size  with  the 
greatest  domes  of  the  world. 

The  largest  and  costliest  private  mansion  in  the  world  is  that 
belonging  to  Lord  Bute,  called  Montstuart,  and  situated  near  Rothesay, 
England.  It  covers  nearly  two  acres;  is  built  in  gothic  style;  the  walls, 
turrets  and  balconies  are  built  of  stone.  The  immense  tower  in  the  center 
of  the  building  is  120  feet  high,  with  a balcony  around  the  top.  The  halls 
are  constructed  entirely  of  marble  and  alabaster,  and  the  rooms  are  finished 
in  mahogany,  rosewood  and  walnut.  The  fire-places  are  all  carved  mar- 
bles of  antique  design.  The  exact  cost  of  this  fairy  palace  is  not  known, 
but  it  has  never  been  estimated  at  less  than  $8,000,000. 

The  largest  body  of  fresh  water  in  the  world  is  Lake  Superior. 
It  is  400  miles  long  and  180  miles  wide;  its  circumference,  including  the 
windings  of  its  various  bays,  has  been  estimated  at  1,800  miles.  Its  area  in 
square  miles  is  32,000,  which  is  greater  than  the  whole  of  New  England, 
leaving  out  Maine.  The  greatest  depth  of  this  inland  sea  is  200  fa^oms, 
or  1,200  feet.  Its  average  depth  is  about  160  fathoms.  It  is  636  feet  above 
sea  level. 

17 


GEMS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 


The  corner  stone  of  the  Washington  monument,  the  highest 
.n  the  United  States,  and  until  1880  the  highest  in  the  world,  was  laid  July 
4th,  1848.  Robert  E.  Winthrop,  then  the  Speaker  of  the  House,  delivered 
the  oration.  Work  progressed  steadily  for  about  six  years,  until  the  funds 
of  the  monumental  society  became  exhausted.  At  that  time  the  monument 
was  about  1*^5  feet  high.  From  1854  until  1879  nothing  to  speak  of  was  done 
on  the  building.  In  the  year  last  above  named  Congress  voted  an  appro- 
priation of  $200,000  to  complete  the  work.  From  that  time  forward  work 
progressed  at  a rapid  rate  until  December  6th,  1884,  when  the  aluminum 
apex  was  set  at  551;  feet  5^^  inches  from  the  foundation  and  the  work  de- 
clared finished.  The  foundation  is  146)^  feet  square;  number  of  stones 
used  above  the  130-foot  level,  9,163;  total  weight  stone  used  in  work,  81,120 
tons. 

The  famous  Corliss  engine,  the  largest  ever  constructed,  and 
the  one  used  to  drive  the  machinery  in  the  great  hall  at  the  Centennial  of 
1876,  is  now  in  the  shops  of  the  Pullman  Car  Company  at  Pullman,  near 
Chicago,  111.  The  writer  is  aware  that  this  differs  from  other  statements 
that  have  been  made,  it  being  generally  supposed  that  the  Emperor  ol 
Brazil  bought  the  engine  and  removed  it  to  his  own  country.  He  did  talk 
of  buying  it,  but  the  bargain  was  never  consummated.  This  tireless  giani 
works  in  an  upright  position,  is  over  40  feet  high,  of  1,400  horse-power,  and 
has  two  40-inch  cylinders  and  a lo-foot  stroke. 

The  largest  ferry-boat  ever  constructed  was  named  the  Solano, 

and  is  now  in  use  daily  conveying  trains  across  the  Straits  of  Carquinez, 
between  Benecia  and  Port  Costa.  The  Solano  is  460  feet  long,  116  feet 
wide,  and  20  foot  depth  of  hold.  She  has  eight  steel  boilers,  four  rudders, 
and  a tonage  of  3,841  tons.  On  her  decks  are  four  railway  tracks,  with 
capacity  for  48  ordinary  freight  cars  and  two  locomotives,  or  28  passenger 
coaches  of  the  largest  build. 

The  highest  building  in  the  world,  not  counting  the  Eiffel 

tower  and  the  Washington  monument,  is  the  Cologne  cathedral.  The 
height  from  the  pavement  to  the  top  of  the  cupola  is  511  feet.  It  is  511  feet 
long,  exactly  the  same  as  the  height,  and  231  feet  wide.  It  was  begun 
August  15th  in  the  year  1248,  and  was  pronounced  finished  August  14th, 

1880,  over  600  years  after  the  corner  stone  was  laid. 

The  highest  mountain  on  the  globe  is  not,  as  is  generally  sup- 
posed, Mt.  Everest,  that  honor  belonging  to  a lofty  peak  named  Mt.  Her- 
cules on  the  Isle  of  Papua,  New  Guinea,  discovered  by  Capt.  Lawson  in 

1881.  According  to  Lawson,  this  monster  is  32,763  feet  in  height,  being 
3,781  feet  higher  than  Mt.  Everest,  which  is  only  29,002  feet  above  the  Icv^ 
of  the  Indian  ocean. 

The  largest  State  in  our  grand  republic  is  Texas,  which  con- 
tains 274,356  square  miles,  capable  of  sustaining  20,000,000  of  people,  and  then 
it  would  not  be  more  crowded  than  Scotland  is  at  present.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  the  entire  population  of  the  globe  could  be  seated  upon 
chairs  within  the  boundary  of  Texas  and  each  have  f ur  feet  of  elbow  room. 

The  largest  anvil  is  that  used  in  the  Woolwich  Arsenal,  Eng- 
land. It  weighs  sixty  tons.  The  anvil  block  upon  which  it  rests  weighs 
103  tons.  Altogether  600  tons  of  iron  were  used  in  the  anvil,  the  block  and 
the  foundation  work.  It  is  said  to  have  been  six  months  cooling  before  it 
was  sufficiently  hard  to  stand  the  shock  of  the  immense  hammer. 

The  Mississippi  river,  from  the  source  of  the  Missouri  to  the 
Eads  jetties,  is  the  longest  river  in  the  world.  It  is  4,300  miles  in  length 
and  drains  an  area  of  1,726^000  square  miles.  The  Amazon,  which  is  with- 
out doubt  the  widest  river  in  the  world,  including  the  Beni,  is  4,000  miles  in 
length  and  drains  2,330,000  square  miles  of  territory. 

The  largest  school  in  the  world  is  the  Jews’  free  school  of 

Spitalsfield,  Eng.,  which  has  a daily  attendance  of2,8oo  pupils. 

18 


GEMS  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 


New  Orleans  boasts  the  largest  custom-house  in  this  or  any 

other  land.  It  was  begun  in  1848  and  over  thirty  years  elapsed  before  it 
was  finished  and  ready  for  use.  It  is  built  of  Quincy  granite,  the  interior 
being  finished  in  finest  marble.  It  has  iii  rooms;  height  from  the  pave- 
ment to  the  top  of  the  cornice  is  eighty  feet,  and  to  the  top  of  the  light  on  the 
dome  187  feet.  The  dome  itself  is  49  feet  square  and  61  feet  high;  estimated 
total  cost  of  building,  $4,900,000. 

The  largest  hotel  in  the  United  States,  and  probably  the  largest 

in  the  world,  is  located  at  San  Francisco,  Cal.  It  is  nine  stories  high  and 
cost  $3,500,000.  It  is  named  the  Palace  and  has  accommodations  for  1,500 
guests. 

Paris  claims  the  finest  theater  in  the  world.  It  is  of  solid 

stone,  finished  with  marble  floors,  and  covers  about  four  acres  of  ground. 
La  Scala,  of  Milan,  has  the  largest  seating  capacity,  while  the  Auditorium 
at  Chicago,  completed  in  1889,  seating  7,000  people,  ranks  second  in  that. 
respect.  


The  Name  of  God  in  Forty-eight  Languages. 


Hebrew  Eleah, 

Jehovah 

Olotu  tongue  . 

Chaldaic 

. . . Eiliah 

German  and  Swiss  . . 

Assyrian  

Flemish 

Godl 

Syrian  and  Turkish 

. . . . Alah 

Dutch 

Malay 

. . . . Alla 

English 

Arabic  

..  .Allah 

Teutonic  

Goth 

Languages  of  the  Magi..Orsi 

Danish  and  Swedish. 

Old  Egyptian 

Norwegian  . . . . 

Gud 

Armenian 

, . . .Teuti 

Slav 

Modern  Egyptian 

. . . Teun 

Polish  

Bog 

Greek 

Polacca 

Cretan 

Lapp 

. . .Jubinal 

Aedian  and  Dorian . 

Ilos 

Finnish  

Latin  

Runic  

As 

Low  Latin  

Zemblian  

. . . Fetiza 

Celtic  Gaelic 

Diu 

Pannonian  . . . . 

. . . . Istu 

French 

Hindostanee  . . 

Spanish  

Coromandel  . . 

Portuguese 

Tartar  

, . Magatai 

Old  German. 

Persian 

Provincial  

Chinese  

Low  Breton 

Japanese 

. . Goezer 

Italian 

Madagascar  . . . 

Irish 

Dia 

Peruvian 

. Puchecammae 

Comparative  Cost  of  Freight  by  Water  and  Rail. — It 
has  been  proved  by  actual  test  that  a single  tow-boat  can  trans- 
port at  one  trip  from  the  Ohio  to  New  Orleans  29,000  tons  of 
coal,  loaded  in  barges.  Estimating  in  this  way,  the  boat  and  its. 
tow,  worked  by  a few  men,  carries  as  much  freight  to  its  destina- 
tion as  3,000  cars  and  100  locomotives,  manned  by  600  men^ 
could  transport. 


19 


LOISETTE’S  SYSTEM  OF  MEMORY. 


SO  MUCH  has  been  said  about  Loisette’s  memory  system, 
the  art  has  been  so  widely  advertised,  and  so  carefully 
guarded  from  all  the  profane  who  do  not  send  five  or 
many  dollars  to  the  Professor,  that  a few  pages  showing  how 
every  man  may  be  his  own  Loisette,  may  be  both  interesting  and 
valuable. 

In  the  first  place,  the  system  is  a good  one,  and  well  worth  the 
labor  of  mastering,  and  if  the  directions  are  implicitly  followed 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  memory  will  be  greatly  strength- 
ened and  improved,  and  that  mnemonic  feats  otherwise  impossible 
may  be  easily  performed.  Loisette,  however,  is  not  an  inventor, 
hut  an  introducer.  He  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  Dr.  Pick 
that  the  retail  dealer  holds  to  the  manufacturer  : the  one  pro- 
duced the  article  ; the  other  brings  it  to  the  public.  Even  this 
statement  is  not  quite  fair  to  Loisette,  for  he  has  brought  much 
practical  common  sense  to  bear  upon  Pick’s  system,  and,  in  pre- 
paring the  new  art  of  mnemonics  for  the  market,  in  many  ways 
he  has  made  it  his  own. 

If  each  man  would  reflect  upon  the  method  by  which  he  him- 
self remembers  things,  he  would  find  his  hand  upon  the  key  oi 
the  whole  mystery.  For  instance,  the  author  was  once  trying  to 
remember  the  word  hlythe.  There  occurred  to  my  mind  the 
words  “ Bellman,”  “ Belle,”  and  then  the  verse  ; 

** the  peasant  upward  climbing 

Hears  the  bells  of  Buloss  chiming.** 

“ Barcarole,”  “ Barrack,”  and  so  on  until  finally  the  word  “ bly  the  ” 
presented  itself  with  a strange  insistance,  long  after  I had  ceased 
trying  to  recall  it. 

On  another  occasion,  when  trjdng  to  recall  the  name  “ Richard- 
son,” I got  the  words  “hay-rick,”  “ Robertson,” “ Randallstown,” 
and  finally  “ wealthy,”  from  which,  naturally,  I got  “ rich  ” and 
“ Richardson  ” almost  in  a breath. 

Still  another  example  : trying  to  recall  the  name  of  an  old 
schoolmate,  “ Gradjq”  I got  “Brady,”  “grave,”  “gaseous,”  “gas- 
tronome,” “ gracious,”  and  I finally  abandoned  the  attempt, 
simply  saying  to  myself  that  it  began  with  a “ G,”  and  there  was 
an  “ a ” sound  after  it.  The  next  morning,  when  thinking  of 
something  entirely  different,  this  name  “ Grady  ” came  up  in  my 
mind  with  as  much  distinctness  as  though  someone  had  whis- 
pered it  in  my  ear.  This  remembering  was  done  without  any 
conscious  effort  on  my  part,  and  was  evidently  the  result  of  the 
exertion  made  the  day  before  when  the  mnemonic  processes  were 
put  to  work.  Every  reader  must  have  had  a similar  experience 
which  he  can  recall,  and  which  will  fall  in  line  with  the  examples 
given. 

20 


LOISETTE'S  Sl'STEM  OF  MEMORT, 


It  follows,  then,  that  when  we  endeavor,  without  the  aid  of  any 
system,  to  recall  a forgotten  fact  or  name,  our  memory  presents 
to  us  words  of  similar  sound  or  meaning  in  its  journey  toward 
the  goal  to  which  we  have  started  it.  This  goes  to  show  that 
our  ideas  are  arranged  in  groups  in  whatever  secret  cavity  or 
recess  of  the  brain  they  occupy,  and  that  the  arrangement  is  one 
not  alphabetical  exactly,  and  not  entirely  by  meaning,  but  after 
some  fashion  partaking  of  both. 

If  you  are  looking  for  the  word  “ meadow  ” you  may  reach 
“ middle  *’  before  you  come  to  it,  or  “ Mexico,”  or  many  words 
beginning  with  the  “m”  sound,  or  containing  the  “dow,”  as 
“ window  ” or  “ dough,”  or  you  may  get  “ field  ” or  “ farm  ” — 
but  you  are  on  the  right  track,  and  if  you  do  not  interfere  with 
your  intellectual  process  you  will  finally  come  to  the  idea  which 
you  are  seeking. 

How  often  have  you  heard  people  say,  “ I forget  his  name,  it 
is  something  like  Beadle  or  Beagle — at  any  rate  it  begins  with  a 
B.”  Each  and  all  of  these  were  unconscious  Loisettians,  and  they 
were  practicing  blindly,  and  without  proper  method  or  direction, 
the  excellent  system  which  he  teaches.  The  thing,  then,  to  do — 
and  it  is  the  final  and  simple  truth  which  Loisette  teaches- — is  to 
travel  over  this  ground  in  the  other  direction — to  cement  the 
fact  which  you  wish  to  remember  to  some  other  fact  or  word 
which  you  know  will  be  brought  out  by  the  implied  conditions — 
and  thus  you  will  always  be  able  to  travel  from  your  given  start- 
ing-point to  the  thing  which  you  wish  to  call  to  mind. 

To  illustrate : let  the  broken  line  in  the  annexed  diagram 
represent  a train  of  thought.  If  we  connect  the  idea  “ a ” with 
through  the  steps  c and  d,  the  tendency  of 
the  mind  ever  afterwards  will  be  to  get  to  e from 
a that  way,  or  from  any  of  the  intermediates  that 
way.  It  seems  as  though  a channel  were  cut  in 
our  mind-stuff  along  which  the  memory  flows. 
How  to  make  it  flow  this  way  will  be  seen  later  on. 
Loisette,  in  common  with  all  the  mnemonic  teach- 
ers, uses  the  old  device  of  representing  numbers  by 
letters — and  as  this  is  the  first  and  easiest  step  in  the  art,  this 
seems  to  be  the  most  logical  place  to  introduce  the  accepted 
equivalents  of  the  Arabic  numerals  : 

0 is  always  represented  by  z or  c soft. 

1 is  always  represented  by  /,  tk  or  d, 

^ is  always  represented  by 

3 is  always  represented  by  w. 

4 is  always  represented  by  r, 

5 is  always  represented  by  /. 

6 is  always  represented  by  sh^j^  ch  soft  or  g soft. 

21 


LOISETTE^S  SYSTEM  OF  MEMORY 


7 is  always  represented  by  g-  hard,  k c hard,  q or  final  ng, 

8 is  always  represented  by  f or  v, 

O is  always  represented  by  p or  b. 

All  the  other  letters  are  used  simply  to  fill  up.  Double  letters  in 
a word  count  only  as  one.  In  fact  the  sytem  goes  by  sound,  not 
by  spelling — for  instance  “ this  ” or  “ dizzy  ” would  stand  for 
ten;  “catch”  or  “gush  ” would  stand  for  76,  and  the  only  diffi- 
culty is  to  make  some  word  or  phrase  which  will  contain  only 
the  significant  letters  in  the  proper  order,  filled  out  with  non- 
significants  into  some  guise  of  meaning  or  intelligibility.*  Sup- 
pose you  wished  to  get  some  phrase  or  word  that  would  express 
the  number  3685,  you  arrange  the  letters  this  way  : 


You  can  make  out  “image  of  law,”  “my  shuffle,”  “ match- 
ville,”  etc.,  etc.,  as  far  as  you  like  to  work  it  out. 

Now,  suppose  you  wished  to  memorize  the  fact  that  $1,000,000 
in  gpld  weighs  3,685  pounds,  you  go  about  it  in  this  way,  and 
here  is  the  kernel  and  crux  of  Loisette’s  system  ; 

“ How  much  does  $1,000,000  in  gold  weigh  ? ” 

“ Weigh — scales.” 

“ Scales — statue  of  Justice.” 

“ Statue  of  Justice — image  of  law." 

The  process  is  simplicity  itself.  The  thing  you  wish  to  recall, 
and  that  you  fear  to  forget,  is  the  weight;  consequently  you 
cement  your  chain  of  suggestion  to  the  idea  which  is  most 

You  can  remember  the  equivalents  by  noting  the  fact  that  z is  the  first  letter  ot 
**  zero,”  and  c of  **  cipher,”  t has  but  one  stroke,  n has  two,  nt  three.  The  script/ 
is  very  like  8,  the  script / like  9;  r is  the  last  letter  of  four,  / is  the  roman  num- 
eral for  fiRy*  which  suggests  five.  The  others  may  be  retained  as  memorizing  these 
two  nonsense  lines: 

Six  shy  Jewesses  ^rAase  George 
Seven  ^eat  ^ings  came  5^uarreli»^. 

22 


LOISETTE^S  SYSTEM  OF  MEMORY. 


prominent  in  ^our  mental  question.  What  do  jou  weigh  with 
Scales.  What  does  the  mental  picture  of  scales  suggest  The 
statue  of  Justice,  blindfolded  and  weighing  out  award  and  pun- 
ishment to  man.  Finally,  what  is  this  statue  of  Justice  but  the 
image  of  law?  and  the  words  “image  of  law,”  translated  back 
from  the  significant  letters  g soft,^'  and  /,  give  you  3-6-8-5, 
the  number  of  pounds  in  $1,000,000  in  gold.  You  bind  together 
in  your  mind  each  separate  step  in  the  journey,  the  one  suggests 
the  other,  and  you  will  find  a year  from  now  that  the  fact  will 
be  as  fresh  in  your  memory  as  it  is  to-day.  You  cannot  lose  it. 
It  is  chained  to  you  by  an  unbreakable  mnemonic  tie.  Mark,  that 
it  is  not  claimed  that  “ weight  ” will  of  itself  suggest  “ scales  ” 
and  “scales”  “statue  of  Justice,”  etc.,  but  that,  having  once  passed 
your  attention  up  and  down  that  ladder  of  ideas,  your  mental 
tendency  will  be  to  take  the  same  route,  and  get  to  the  same  goal 
again  and  again.  Indeed,  beginning  with  the  weight  of  $1,000,000, 
“ image  of  law  ” will  turn  up  in  your  mind  without  your  con- 
sciousness of  any  intermediate  station  on  the  way,  after  some 
iteration  and  reiteration  of  the  original  chain. 

Again,  so  as  to  fasten  the  process  in  the  reader’s  mind  even 
more  firmly,  suppose  that  it  were  desired  to  fix  the  date  of  the 
battle  of  Hastings  (A.  D.  1066)  in  the  memory;  io66  may  be 
represented  by  the  words  “ the  wise  judge  ” {th  = i,  .y  = o,y  = 6, 
dg  = 6 ; the  others  are  non-significants);  a chain  might  be  made 
thus  : 

Battle  of  Hastings — arbitrament  of  war. 

Arbitrament  of  war — arbitration. 

Arbitration — judgment. 

Judgment — the  wise  judge. 

Make  mental  pictures,  connect  ideas,  repeat  words  and  sounds, 
go  about  it  any  way  you  please,  so  that  you  will  form  a mental 
habit  of  connecting  the  “battle  of  Hastings”  with  the  idea  of 
“ arbitrament  of  war,”  and  so  on  for  the  other  links  in  the  chain, 
and  the  work  is  done. 

Loisette  makes  the  beginning  of  his  system  unnecessarily  diffi- 
cult, to  say  nothing  of  his  illogical  arrangement  in  the  grammar 
of  the  art  of  memory,  which  he  makes  the  first  of  his  lessons. 
He  analyzes  suggestion  into — 

1.  Inclusion. 

2.  Exclusion. 

3.  Concurrence. 

All  of  which  looks  very  scientific  and  orderly,  but  is  really 
misleading,  and  badly  named.  The  truth  is  that  one  idea  will 
suggest  another. 

I.  By  likeness  or  opposition  of  meaning,  as  “ house  ” suggests 
23 


LOISETTE^S  SrSTEM  OF  MEMORY, 


“ room  ’’  or  “ door,”  etc.;  or,  “ white  ” suggests  “ black,”  “ cruel,” 
“ kind,”  etc. 

2.  By  likeness  of  sound,  as  “ harrow  ” and  “ barrow”  ; “Henry  ” 
and  “ Hennepin.” 

3.  By  mental  juxtaposition,  a peculiarity  different  in  each  per- 
son, and  depending  upon  each  one’s  own  experiences.  Thus, 
“ St.  Charles  ” suggests  “ railway  bridge  ” to  me,  because  I was 
vividly  impressed  by  the  breaking  of  the  Wabash  bridge  at  that 
point.  “Stable”  and  “broken  leg”  come  near  each  other  in 
my  experience,  so  do  “ cow  ” and  “ shot-gun  ” and  “ licking.” 

Out  of  these  three  sorts  of  suggestion  it  is  possible  to  get  from 
any  one  fact  to  any  other  in  a chain  certain  and  safe,  along  which 
the  mind  may  be  depended  upon  afterwards  always  to  follow. 

The  chain  is,  of  course,  by  no  means  all.  Its  making  and  its 
binding  must  be  accompanied  by  a vivid,  methodically  directed 
attention,  which  turns  all  the  mental  light  gettable  in  a focus 
upon  the  subject  passing  across  the  mind’s  screen.  Before 
Loisette  was  thought  of  this  was  known.  In  the  old  times  in 
England,  in  order  to  impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  rising  gene- 
ration the  parish  boundaries  in  the  rural  districts,  the  boys  were 
taken  to  each  of  the  landmarks  in  succession,  the  position  and 
bearings  of  each  pointed  out  carefully,  and,  in  order  to  deepen 
the  impression,  the  ^oung  people  were  then  and  there  vigorously 
thrashed,  a mechanical  method  of  attracting  the  attention  which 
was  said  never  to  have  failed.  This  system  has  had  its  supporters 
in  many  of  the  old-fashioned  schools,  and  there  are  men  who  will 
read  these  lines  who  can  recall,  with  an  itching  sense  of  vivid 
expression,  the  144  lickings  which  were  said  to  go  with  the  mul- 
tiplication table. 

In  default  of  a thrashing,  however,  the  student  must  cultivate 
as  best  he  can  an  intense  fixity  of  perception  upon  every  fact  or 
word  or  date  that  he  wishes  to  make  permanently  his  own.  It  is 
easy.  It  is  a matter  of  habit.  If  you  will  you  can  photograph  an 
idea  upon  your  cerebral  gelatine  so  that  neither  years  nor  events 
will  blot  it  out  or  overlay  it.  You  must  be  clearly  and  distinctly 
aware  of  the  thing  you  are  putting  into  your  mental  treasure- 
house,  and  drastically  certain  of  the  cord  by  which  you  have 
tied  it  to  some  other  thing  of  which  you  are  sure.  Unless  it  is 
worth  your  w'hile  to  do  this,  you  might  as  well  abandon  any 
hope  of  mnemonic  improvement,  which  will  not  come  without  the 
hardest  kind  of  hard  work,  although  it  is  work  that  will  grow 
constantly  easier  with  practice  and  reiteration. 

You  need,  then  : 

1.  Methodic  suggestion, 

2.  Methodic  attention. 

3.  Methodic  reiteration. 


24 


LOISErrE'S  SrSTEM  OF  MEMORY. 


And  this  is  all  there  is  to  Loisette,  and  a great  deal  it  is.  Two 
of  them  will  not  do  without  the  third.  You  do  not  know  how 
many  steps  there  are  from  your  hall  door  to  your  bed-room, 
though  you  have  attended  to  and  often  reiterated  the  journey. 
But  if  there  are  twenty  of  them,  and  you  have  once  bound  the 
word  “nice,”  or  “nose,”  or  “news,”  or  “ hyenas,”  to  the  fact  of  the 
stairway,  yow  could  never  forget  it. 

The  Professor  makes  a point,  and  very  wisely,  of  the  impor- 
tance of  working  through  some  established  chain,  so  that  the 
whole  may  be  carried  away  in  the  mind — not  alone  for  the  value 
of  the  facts  so  bound  together,  but  for  the  mental  discipline  so 
afforded. 

Here,  then,  is  the  “ President  Series,”  which  contains  the 
name  and  the  date  of  inauguration  of  each  president  from  Wash- 
ington to  Cleveland.  The  manner  in  which  it  is  to  be  mastered 
is  this:  Beginning  at  the  top,  try  to  find  in  your  mind  some 
connection  between  each  word  and  the  one  following  it.  See 
how  you  can  at  some  future  time  make  one  suggest  the  next, 
either  by  suggestion  of  sound  or  sense,  or  by  mental  juxtaposi- 
tion. When  you  have  found  this  dwell  on  it  attentively  for  a 
moment  or  two.  Pass  it  backward  and  forward  before  you,  and 
then  go  on  to  the  next  step. 

The  chain  runs  thus,  the  names  of  the  presidents  being  in 
small  caps,  the  date  words  in  italics: 


President..  Chosen  as  the  first  word  as  the  one  most  apt  to  occur  to  the 

mind  of  any  one  wishing  to  repeat  the  names  of  the  presidents. 

Dentist Vx^^xdent  and  dentist. 

Draw What  does  a dentist  do? 

To  give  up When  something  is  drawn  from  one  it  is  given  up.  This  is  a 

date  phrase  meaning  1789. 

Self-sacrifice There  is  an  association  of  thought  between  giving  up  and  self- 

sacrifice. 

Washington Associate  the  quality  of  self-sacrifice  with  Washington’s  charac- 

ter. 

Morning  wash. ... . . tVaskington.  and  wash. 

Dew Early  wetness  and  dew. 

Flower  beds Dew  and  flowers. 

Took  a bouquet Flowers  and  bouquet  Date  phrase  (1797). 

Garden Bouquet  and  garden. 

Eden The  first  garden. 

Adam Juxtaposition  of  thought. 

Adams Suggestion  by  sound. 

Fall .Juxtaposition  of  thought. 

Failure Fall  and  failure. 

Deficit Upon  a failure  there  is  usually  a deficit.  Date  word  (i3oi). 

Debt Tlxe  consequence  of  a deficit. 

Bonds Debt  and  bonds. 

Confederate  bonds.  .Suggestion  by  meaning. 

Jefferson  Davis,. . . . .Juxtaposition  of  thought. 

Jefferson. 


Now  follow  out  the  rest  for  yourself,  taking  about  ten  at  a 
time,  and  binding  those  you  do  last  to  those  you  have  done  be- 
fore each  time,  before  attacking  the  next  bunch. 

25 


LOISETTE'S  SrSTEM  OF  MEMORY, 


1 


JeF'TERSON 
Judge  Jeffreys 
bloody  assize 
bereavement 
too  heavy  a sob 
parental  grief 
mad  son 
Madison 
Madeira 
first-rate  wine 
frustrating 
defeating 
feet 

toe  tbe  line 
row 

Monroe 

row 

boat 

steamer 

the  funnel 

windpipe 

throat 

quinzy 

Quincy  Adams 

quince 

fine  fruit 

the  fine  boy 

sailor  boy 

sailor 

jack  tar 

Jackson 

stone  wall 

indomitable 

tough  make 

oaken  furniture 

bureau 

Van  Buren 

rent 

side-splitting 

divert 

annoy 

harassing 

Harrison 

Old  Harry 

the  tempter 


2 


the  fraud 
painted  clay 
baked  clay 
tiles 
Tyler 
Wat  Tyler 
poll  tax 
compulsory 
free  will 
free  offering 
burnt  offering 
poker 
Polk 

end  of  dance 

termination  “ly” 

adverb 

part  of  speech 

part  of  a man 

Taylor 

measurer 

theodolite 

Theophilus 

fill  us 

Fillmore 

more  fuel 

the  flame 

flambeau 

bow 

arrow 

Pierce 

hurt 

feelifig 

wound 

soldier 

cannon 

Buchanan 

rebuke 

official  censure 

to  officiate 

wedding 

linked 

Lincoln 

link 

stroll 

sea  shore 


3 

the  heavy  shell 
mollusk 

unfamiliar  word 

dictionary 

Johnson’s 

Johnson 

son 

bad  son 

dishonest  boy 

thievish  boy 

take 

give 

Grant 

award 

school  premium 
examination 
cramming 
fagging 
laborer 
hay  field 
Hayes 
hazy 
clear 
vivid 

brightly  lighted 
camp  fire 
war  field 
Garfield 
Guiteau 
murderer 
prisoner 
prison  fare 
half  fed 
well  fed 
well  read 
author 
Arthur 
round  table 
tea  table 
tea  cup 
half  full 
divide 
cleave 

Cleveland 

— , la 


LOISETTE^S  SrSTBM  OF  MEMORY. 


It  will  be  noted  that  some  of  the  date  words,  as  “free  will,’*' 
only  give  three  figures  of  the  date,  845;  but  it  is  to  be  supposed 
that  if  the  student  knows  that  many  figures  in  the  date  of  Polk’s 
inauguration  he  can  guess  the  other  one. 

The  curious  thing  about  this  system  will  now  become  apparent. 
If  the  reader  has  learned  the  series  so  that  he  can  say  it  down, 
from  President  to  Cleveland,  he  can  with  no  effort,  and  without 
any  further  preparation,  say  it  backwards  from  Cleveland  up  to 
the  commencement!  There  could  be  no  better  proof  that  this  is 
the  natural  mnemonic  system.  It  proves  itself  by  its  works. 

The  series  should  be  repeated  backwards  and  forwards  every  day 
for  a month,  and  should  be  supplemented  by  a series  of  the  reader’s 
own  making,  and  by  this  one,  which  gives  the  numbers  from  o to 
100,  and  which  must  be  chained  together  before  they  can  be  learned. 


0 — hoes 

i-;-wheat 

34 — mare 

67 — jockey 

2 — hen 

35— mill 

68 — shave 

3 — home 

36 — image 

69 — ship 

4 — hair 

37— mug 

70“eggs 

5— oil 

38 — muff 

71 — ^gate 

6 — shoe 

39 — mob 

72— gun 

7 — ^hook 

40 — race 

73 — comb 

8— off 

41 — hart 

74 — hawker 

9 — bee 

42 — horn 

75 — coal 

10 — daisy 

43— army 

76— cage 

1 1 — tooth 

44 — warrior 

77 — cake 

12 — dine 

45_royal 

78 — coffee 

13 — time 

46 — arch 

79 — cube 

14 — ^tower 

47 — rock 

80 — ^vase 

15— dell 

48 — wharf 

81 — feet 

16 — ditch 

49 — rope 

82 — vein 

17 — duck 

50-^wheels 

83 — fame 

18— dove 

51— lad 

84 — fire 

19 — ^tabby 

52 — lion 

815 — vial 

20 — hyenas 

53— lamb 

S^fish 

21 — hand 

54 — 

87— fig 

22 — nun 

55— lily 

88— fife 

23 — name 

56 — lodge 

89 — fib 

24 — owner 

57 — lake 

90 — pies 

25 — nail 

58 — leaf 

91 — putty 

26 — hinge 

59 — elbow 

92 — pane 

27 — ink 

60 — chess 

93 — bomb 

28 — knife 

61 — cheat 

94 — bier 

29 — knob 

62 — chain 

95 — bell 

30 — muse 

63 — sham 

96 — peach 

31— mayday 

64 — chair 

97 — book 

32 — hymen 

65— jail 

98 — beef 

33 — mama 

66 — ^judge 

99— pope 

m] 

LOISBTTE^S  SYSTEM  OF  MEMORY. 


By  the  use  of  this  table,  which  should  be  committed  as 
thoroughly  as  the  President  series,  so  that  it  can  be  repeated 
backwards  and  forwards,  any  date,  figure  or  number  can  be  at 
once  constructed,  and  bound  by  the  usual  chain  to  the  fact  which 
you  wish  it  to  accompan3^ 

When  the  student  wishes  to  go  farther  and  attack  larger 
problems  than  the  simple  binding  of  two  facts  together,  there  is 
little  in  Loisette^s  system  that  is  new,  although  there  is  much 
that  is  good.  If  it  is  a book  that  is  to  be  learned  as  one  would 
prepare  for  an  examination,  each  chapter  is  to  be  considered 
separately.  Of  each  a precis  is  to  be  written  in  which  the 
writer  must  exercise  all  of  his  ingenuity  to  reduce  the  matter  in 
hand  to  its  final  skeleton  of  fact.  This  he  is  to  commit  to  mem- 
ory both  by  the  use  of  the  chain  and  the  old  system  of  interro- 
gation. Suppose  after  much  labor  through  a wide  space  of 
language  one  boils  a chapter  or  an  event  down  to  the  final  irre- 
ducible sediment:  “ Magna  Charta  was  exacted  by  the  barons 
from  King  John  at  Runnymede.” 

You  must  now  turn  this  statement  this  way  and  that  way; 
asking  yourself  about  it  every  possible  and  impossible  question, 
gravely  considering  the  answers,  and,  if  you  find  any  part  of  it 
especially  difficult  to  remember,  chaining  it  to  the  question  which 
will  bring  it  out.  Thus,  “ What  was  exacted  by  the  barons  from 
King  John  at  Runnymede  V*  “ Magna  Charta.”  “ By  whom 
was  Magna  Charta  exacted  from  King  John  at  Runnymede.^” 
“ By  the  barons.”  “ From  whom  was,”  etc.,  etc.  ? “ King  John.” 
“ From  what  king,”  etc.,  etc.  “King  John.”  “Where  was  Magna 
Charta,”  etc.,  etc.  ? “At  Runnymede.” 

And  so  on  and  so  on,  as  long  as  your  ingenuity  can  suggest 
questions  to  ask,  or  points  of  view  from  which  to  consider  the 
statement.  Your  mind  will  be  finally  saturated  with  the  in- 
formation, and  prepared  to  spill  it  out  at  the  first  squeeze  of  the 
examiner.  This,  however,  is  not  new.  It  was  taught  in  the 
schools  hundreds  of  years  before  Loisette  was  born.  Old  news- 
paper men  will  recall  in  connection  with  it  Horace  Greeley’s 
statement  that  the  test  of  a news  item  was  the  clear  and  satisfac- 
tory manner  in  which  a report  answered  the  interrogatories, 
“What?”  “When.?”  “Where?”  “Who.?”  “Why.?” 

In  the  same  way  Loisette  advises  the  learning  of  poetry,  e. 

“The  Assyrian  came  down  like  a wolf  on  the  fold.” 

“ Who  came  down?” 

“ How  did  the  Assyrian  come  down?” 

“ Like  what  animal  did?”  etc. 

And  so  on  and  so  on,  until  the  verses  are  exhausted  of  every 
scrap  of  information  to  be  had  out  of  them  by  the  most  assiduous 
cross-examination. 


28 


/.OTSETTE^S  SrSTEM  OF  MEMORT. 


Whatever  the  reader  may  think  of  the  availability  or  value  of 
tnis  part  of  the  system,  there  are  so  many  easily  applicable  tests 
of  the  worth  of  much  that  Loisette  has  done,  that  it  may  be 
taken  with  the  rest. 

Few  people,  to  give  an  easy  example,  can  remember  the  value 
of  TT — the  ratio  between  the  circumference  and  the  diameter  ol 
the  circle — beyond  four  places  of  decimals,  or  at  most  six  — 
3.  141592  + . Here  is  the  value  to  108  decimal  places: 

3.  I4I59265-3589793238-462643383279502884I97I69399375-10582 
09749*445923078 1 •64o62862o8*998628o348*2 5342 1 1 7067982 1 480 
86  + 

By  a very  simple  application  of  the  numerical  letter  values 
these  108  decimal  places  can  be  carried  in  the  mind  and  recalled 
about  as  fast  as  you  can  write  them  down.  All  that  is  to  be  doiu 
is  to  memorize  these  nonsense  lines: 

Mother  Day  will  buy  any  shawl. 

My  love  pick  up  my  new  muif. 

A Russian  jeer  may  move  a woman. 

Cables  enough  for  Utopia. 

Get  a cheap  ham  pie  by  my  cooley. 

The  slave  knows  a bigger  ape. 

I rarely  hop  on  my  sick  foot. 

Cheer  a sage  in  a fashion  safe. 

A baby  fish  now  views  my  wharf. 

Annually  Mary  Ann  did  kiss  a jay. 

A cabby  found  a rough  savage. 

Now  translate  each  significant  into  its  proper  value  and  yoii 
have  the  task  accomplished.  “ Mother  Day,”  ^^=3,  tkz=i,  ^=4 
and  so  on.  Learn  the  lines  one  at  a time  by  the  method 
of  interrogatories.  “Who  will  buy  any  shawl.?”  “Which  Mrs.  Day 
will  buy  a shawl.?”  ‘ Is  Mother  Day  particular  about  the  sort  ol 
shawl  she  will  buy?”  “Has  she  bought  a shawl?”  etc.,  etc.  Then 
cement  the  end  of  each  line  to  the  beginning  of  the  next  one, 
thus,  “ Shawl  ” — “warm  garment  ” — “ warmth  ” — “ love  ” — “ my 
love,”  and  go  on  as  before.  Stupid  as  the  work  may  seem  to  you, 
you  can  memorize  the  figures  in  fifteen  minutes  this  way  so  that 
you  will  not  forget  them  in  fifteen  years.  Similarly  you  can  take 
Haydn’s  Dictionary  of  Dates  and  turn  fact  after  fact  into  non- 
sense lines  like  these  which  you  cannot  lose. 

And  this  ought  to  be  enough  to  show  anybody  the  whole  art. 
If  you  look  back  across  the  sands  of  time  and  find  out  that  it  is 
that  ridiculous  old  “ Thirty  days  hath  September  ” which  comes 
to  you  when  you  are  trying  to  think  of  the  length  of  October — if 
you  can  quote  your  old  prosody, 

“O  datur  ambiguis/' etc., 

with  much  more  certainty  than  you  can  serve  up  your  Horace;  if, 


tOISBTTE^S  SrSTEM  OF  MEMORT. 

in  fine,  jingles  and  alliterations,  wise  and  otherwise,  have  staj^ed 
with  you,  while  solid  and  serviceable  information  has  faded 
away,  you  may  be  certain  that  here  is  the  key  to  the  enigma  of 
memory. 

You  can  apply  it  yourself  in  a hundred  ways.  If  you  wish 
to  clinch  in  your  mind  the  fact  that  Mr.  Love  lives  at  485  Dear- 
born Street,  what  is  more  easy  than  to  turn  485  into  the  word 
“rifle”  and  chain  the  ideas  together,  say  thus:  “Love — happi- 
ness— good  time — picnic — forest — wood"  rangers — range — rifle 
range — rifle — fine  weapon — costly  weapon — dearly  bought — 
Dearborn.  ” 

Or  if  you  wish  to  remember  Mr.  Bowman’s  name,  and  you 
notice  he  has  a mole  on  his  face  which  is  apt  to  attract  your  at- 
tention when  you  next  see  him,  cement  the  ideas  thus  : “Mole, 
mark,  target,  archer.  Bowman.” 


The  Copying  Pad. — Put  i ounce  of  glue  to  soak  in  cold 
water  until  pliable  and  soft.  Drain  off  the  surplus  water  and 
place  the  dish  in  another  dish  containing  hot  water.  When  the 
glue  is  thoroughly  melted,  add  6 ounces  of  glycerine,  which 
has  been  previously  heated,  and  mix  the  two,  adding  a few  drops 
of  carbolic  acid  to  prevent  molding.  Pour  out  this  mixture  into 
a shallow  pan  (9x12  inches)  and  set  away  to  cool,  taking  care 
that  the  surface  is  free  from  blisters.  After  standing  12  hours  it 
is  ready  for  use.  To  use,  write  on  a sheet  of  paper  what  you 
wish  to  duplicate  with  a sharp  steel  pen  and  strong  aniline  ink. 
When  dry,  lay  the  paper  face  down  on  the  pad,  pressing  it  lightly, 
and  allow  it  to  remain  for  a moment.  On  removing  the  paper 
an  impression  will  be  found  on  the  face  of  the  pad,  and  if  another 
paper  is  placed  upon  it,  it  will  receive  a similar  impression. 
When  enough  impressions  have  been  taken,  the  face  of  the  pad 
should  be  immediately  washed  with  a sponge  and  cold  water  until 
the  ink  impression  is  wholly  removed.  If  the  surface  of  the  pad 
becomes  dry,  wipe  it  with  a moist  sponge,  and,  if  uneven,  melt 

over  a slow  fire.  

How  TO  Raise  the  Body  of  a Drowned  Person. — In  a 
recent  failure  to  recover  the  body  of  a drowned  person  in  New 
Jersey,  a French-Canadian  undertook  the  job,  and  proceeded  as 
follows  : Having  supplied  himself  with  some  glass  gallon  jars 
and  a quantity  of  unslacked  lime  he  went  in  a boat  to  the  place 
where  the  man  was  seen  to  go  down.  One  of  the  jars  was  filled 
half  full  of  lime,  and  then  filled  up  with  water  and  tightly 
corked.  It  was  then  dropped  into  the  water  and  soon  after  ex- 
ploded at  the  bottom  of  the  river  with  a loud  report.  After  the 
third  trial,  each  time  at  a different  place,  the  body  rose  to  the 
surface  and  was  secured. 


30 


500  ERRORS  CORRECTED. 


Concise  Rules  in  Grammar,  Spelling  and  Pronunciation. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  errors  in  speaking.  The 
most  objectionable  of  them  all  are  those  in  which  words 
are  employed  that  are  unsuitable  to  convey  the  meaning 
intended.  Thus,  a person  wishing  to  express  his  intention  of  go- 
ing to  a given  place  says,  “ I propose  going,”  when,  in  fact,  he 
purposes  going.  The  following  affords  an  amusing  illustration 
of  this  class  of  error  : A venerable  matron  was  speaking  of  hei 
son,  who,  she  said,  was  quite  stage-struck.  “ In  fact,”  remarked 
the  old  lady,  “he  is  going  to  a premature  performance  this 
evening  ! ” Considering  that  most  amateur  performances  are 
premature^  it  cannot  be  said  that  this  word  was  altogether  mis- 
applied ; though,  evidently,  the  maternal  intention  was  to  con- 
vey quite  another  meaning. 

Other  errors  arise  from  the  substitution  of  sounds  similar  to 
the  words  which  should  be  employed  ; that  is,  spurious  words 
instead  of  genuine  ones.  Thus,  some  people  say  “ renumera- 
tive^"'  when  they  mean  “ remunerative.^'  A nurse,  recommend- 
ing her  mistress  to  have  a perambulator  for  her  child,  advised 
her  to  purchase  a preamputator ! 

Other  errors  are  occasioned  by  imperfect  knowledge  of  the 
English  grammar  : thus,  many  people  say,  “ Between  you  and 
I,”  instead  of  “ Between  you  and  mei'  And  there  are  numerous 
other  departures  from  the  rules  of  grammar,  which  will  be 
pointed  out  hereafter. 

Misuse  of  the  Adjective  : “ What  beautiful  butter!” 
“ What  a nice  landscape!  ” They  should  say  “ What  a beautiful 
landscape  I"  “What  nice  butter  I"  Again,  errors  are  fre- 
quently occasioned  by  the  following  causes  : 

Mispronunciation  of  Words:  Many  persons  say  pro- 
nounctaiton  instead  of  prontinciatio7i ; others  say  pro-nun-ce-a-shun, 
instead  of  pro-nun-she-a-shun. 

Misdivision  of  Words  and  Syllables:  This  defect 
makes  the  words  a7i  ambassador  sound  like  a nambassador^  or 
an  adder  like  a nadder. 

Imperfect  Enunciation,  as  when  a person  says  hebben  for 
heaven.,  ebber  for  ever^  jocholate  for  chocolate. 

To  correct  these  errors  by  a systematic  course  of  study  would 
involve  a closer  application  than  most  persons  could  afford,  but 
the  simple  and  concise  rules  and  hints  here  given,  founded  upon 
usage  and  the  authority  of  scholars,  will  be  of  great  assistance  to 
inquirers. 


31 


GRAMMAR,  SPELLING  AND  PRONUNCIA  TION 

RULES  AND  HINTS  FOR  CORRECT  SPEAKING. 

Who  and  whom  are  used  in  relation  to  persons,  and  which  in  relation  to  things. 
But  it  was  once  common  to  say,  “the  man  which.'*  This  should  now  be  avoided. 
It  is  now  usual  to  say,  “Our  Father  who  art  in  heaven,”  instead  of  "which  art  in 
heaven.” 

Whose  is,  however,  sometimes  applied  to  things  as  well  as  to  persons.  Wc  may 
therefore  say,  “The  country  whose  inhabitants  are  free.” 

Thou  is  employed  in  solemn  discourse,  and  you  in  common  language.  Ye 
(plural)  is  also  used  in  serious  addresses,  and  you  in  familiar  language. 

The  uses  of  the  word  it  are  various,  and  very  perplexing  to  the  uneducated.  It 
!s  not  only  used  to  imply  persons,  but  things,  and  even  ideas,  and  therefore  in 
speaking  or  writing,  its  assi.stance  is  constantly  required.  The  perplexity  respect- 
ng  this  word  arises  from  the  fact  that  in  using  it  in  the  construction  of  a long  sen- 
tence, sufficient  care  is  not  taken  to  insure  that  when  it  is  employed  it  really  points 
out  or  refers  to  the  object  intended.  For  instance,  “It  was  raining  when  John 
<et  out  in  his  cart  to  go  to  market,  and  he  was  delayed  so  long  that  it  was  over  be- 
tore  he  arrived.”  Now  what  is  to  be  understood  by  this  sentence?  Was  the  rain 
over?  or  the  market?  Either  or  both  might  be  inferred  from  the  construction  of  the 
sentence,  which,  therefore,  should  be  written  thus; — “It  was  raining  when  John 
jet  out  in  his  cart  to  go  to  market,  and  he  was  delayed  so  long  that  the  market  was 
Dver  before  he  arrived.” 

Rule. — After  writing  a sentence  always  look  through  it,  and  see  that  wherever  the 
word  it  is  employed,  it  refers  to  or  carries  the  mind  back  to  the  object  which  it  is 
intended  to  point  out. 

The  general  distinction  between  this  and  that  may  be  thus  defined : this  de- 
motes an  object  present  or  near,  in  time  or  place  ; that  something  which  is  absent. 

These  refers,  in  the  same  manner,  to  present  objects,  while  those  refers  to  things 
ihat  are  remote. 

Who  changes,  under  certain  conditions,  into  whose  and  whom\  but  that  and 
which  always  remain  the  same,  with  the  exception  of  the  possessive  case,  as  noted 
ibove. 

That  may  be  applied  to  nouns  or  subjects  of  all  sorts ; as,  the  girl  that  went  to 
school,  the  dog  that  bit  me,  the  opinion  that  he  entertains. 

The  misuse  of  these  pronouns  gives  rise  to  more  errors  in  speaking  and  writing 
than  any  other  cause. 

When  you  wish  to  distinguish  between  two  or  more  persons,  say,  “ Which  is  the 
happy  man  ?”  not  who — “ Which  of  those  ladies  do  you  admire  ?*’ 

Instead  of  “ Whom  do  you  think  him  to  be?”  say,  “ Who  do  you  think  him  to 
be?” 

Whom  should  T see  ? 

To  whom  do  you  speak? 

Who  said  so  ? 

Who  gave  it  to  you  ? 

Of  whom  did  you  procure  them? 

Who  was  he  ? 

Who  do  men  say  that  / am? 

Sed should  never  be  added  to  his.  their,  mine,  or  thine. 

Each  is  used  to  denote  every  individual  of  a number. 

Every  denotes  all  the  individuals  of  a number. 

Either  and  or  denote  an  alternative;  “I  will  take  either  road,  at  your 
pleasure  , ” “I  will  take  this  or  that.” 

Neither  means  not  either  ; and  nor  means  not  the  other. 

Either  is  sometimes  used  for  each — “Two  thieves  were  crucified,  on  either  side 
one.” 

“ Let  esteem  others  as  good  as  themselves,”  should  be,  “Let  each  esteem 
others  as  good  as  himself." 

“ I’here  are  bodies  each  of  which  are  so  small,”  should  be,  “each  of  which  fr  so 
small.” 

Do  not  use  double  superlatives,  such  as  most  straightest,  most  highest,  most 
fi  nest. 


GRAMMAR,  SPELLING  AND  PRONUNCIATION. 

The  term  ivorser  has  gone  out  of  use  ; but  lesser  is  still  retained. 

The  use  of  such  words  as  chief est.^  extremesty  etc.,  has  become  obsolete,  because 
they  do  not  give  any  superior  force  to  the  meanings  of  the  primary  words,  chief  ex- 
treme, etc. 

Such  expressions  as  more  impossible,  mo'^'e  indispensable,  more  universal,  more 
Uncontrolable,  more  unlimited,  etc.,  are  objectionable,  as  they  really  enfeeble  the 
meaning  which  it  is  the  object  of  the  speaker  or  writer  to  strengthen.  For  instance, 
impossible  gains  no  strength  by  rendering  it  more  impossible.  This  class  of  error  is 
common  with  persons  who  say,  “ A great  large  house,”  “ A great  big  animal,”  “ A 
little  small  foot,”  “ A tiny  little  hand.” 

Here,  there  and  where,  originally  denoting  place,  may  how,  by  common  consent, 
be  used  to  denote  other  meanings  ; such  as,  “ There  I agree  with  you,”  “ Where  we 
differ,”  “ We  find  pain  where  we  expected  pleasure,’*  “ Here  you  mistake  me.” 

Hence,  whence  and  thence,  denoting  departure,  etc.,  may  be  used  Without  the 
word  from.  The  idea  of  from  is  included  in  the  word  tbhence — therefore  it  is  un- 
necessary to  say  **  From  whencei"* 

Hither,  thither,  and  whither,  denoting  to  a place,  have  generally  been  super- 
seded by  here,  there,  and  where.  But  there  is  no  good  reason  why  they  should  not 
be  employed.  If,  however,  they  are  used,  it  is  unnecessary  to  add  the  word  to,  be- 
cause that  is  implied — '^Whither  are  you  going?”  ''Where  are  you  going?” 
Each  of  these  sentences  is  complete.  To  say,  “Where  are  you  going  ^(??”  is  re- 
dundant. 

Two  negatives  destroy  each  other,  and  produce  an  affirmative.  *' Nor  did  he 
not  observe  them,”  conveys  the  idea  that  he  did  observe  them. 

But  negative  assertions  are  allowable.  “His  manners  are  not  impolite,”  which 
implies  that  his  manners  are  in  some  degree  marked  by  politeness. 

Instead  of  “Let  you  and  I,'*  say  “Let  you  and  me.” 

Instead  of  “ I am  not  so  tall  as  him,*'  say  “ I am  not  so  tall  as  he.” 

When  asked  “Who  is  there?”  do  not  answer  "Me,”  but  “1.” 

Instead  of  “ For  you  and  /,”  say  “For  you  and  me.” 

Instead  of  “ Says  /,”  say,  “I  said.” 

Instead  of  “ You  are  taller  than  me,”  say  “You  are  taller  than  I.” 

Instead  of  “ I ain't,”  or  “I  arn't,”  say  “ I am  not.” 

Instead  of  Whether  I be  present  or  no,  say  “ Whether  I be  present  or  not.” 

For  “ Not  that  I know  on,  say  “ Not  that  I know.” 

Instead  of  “ Was  I to  do  so,”  say  “ Were  I to  do  so.” 

Instead  of  “ I would  do  the  same  if  I was  him,”  say  “ I would  do  the  same  if  I 
were  he.” 

Instead  of  “ I had  as  lief  go  myself,”  say  “I  would  as  soon  go  myself,”  or  “ I 
would  rather.” 

It  is  better  to  say  “Six  weeks  ago,”  than  “Six  weeks  back.” 

It  is  better  to  say  “ Since  which  time,”  than  “ Since  when.” 

It  is  better  to  say  “ I repeated  it,”  than  “ I said  so  over  again.” 

Instead  of  “ He  was  too  young  to  have  suffered  much,”  say  “ He  was  too  young  to 
suffer  much.” 

Instead  of  "Less  friends,”  say  “ Fewer  friends.”  Less  refers  to  quantity. 

Instead  of  “ A quantity  of  people,”  say  “A  number  of  people.” 

Instead  of  "He  and  they  we  know,”  say  “Him  and  them.” 

Instead  of  "As  far  as  I can  see,”  say  “So  far  as  I can  see.” 

Instead  of  “ A new  pair  of  gloves,  say  “ A pair  of  new  gloves.” 

Instead  of  “I  hope  you’ll  think  nothing  on  it,’'  say  “ I hope  you’ll  think  nothing 
of  it.” 

Instead  of  “ Restore  it  hack  to  me,”  say  “ Restore  it  to  me.” 

Instead  of  “I  suspect  the  veracity  of  his  story,”  say  “ I doubt  the  truth  of  his 
story.” 

Instead  of  “I  seldom  or  ever  see  him,”  say  “ I seldom  see  him.” 

Instead  of  “I  expected  to  have  found  him,”  say  “ I expected  to  find  him.” 

Instead  of  “ Vslho learns  you  music?”  say  “Who  teaches  you  music?” 

Instead  of  “ I never  sing  whenever  I can  help  it,”  say  “ I never  sing  when  I can 
help  it.” 

Instead  of  “Before  I do  that  I first  ask  leave,”  say  “Before  I do  that  I must 
ask  leave.”  oo 


GRAMMAR,  SPELLING  AND  PRONUNCIATION, 

Instead  of  saying  “The  observation  of  the  rule,”  say  “The  observance  of  the 
rule.” 

Instead  of  “ A man  ^eighty  years  of  age,”  say  “ A man  eighty  years  old.” 

Instead  of  “ Here  iayshis  honored  head,”  say  “ Here  lies  his  honored  head.” 

Instead  of  “He  died  from  negligence,"  say  “He  died  through  neglect,”  or  “ in 
consequence  of  neglect.” 

Instead  of  “Apples  are  plenty,”  say  “ Apples  are  plentiful.” 

Instead  of  “The  latter  end  of  the  year,”  say  “ The  end,  or  the  close,  of  the  year.” 

Instead  of  “The  then  government,”  say  “ The  government  of  that  age,  or  century, 
or  year,  or  time.” 

Instead  of  **  A couple  of  chairs,”  say  “ Two  chairs.” 

Instead  of  “They  are  united  together  in  the  bonds  of  matrimony,”  say  “They 
are  united  in  matrimony,”  or  “They  are  married.” 

Instead  of  “We  travel  slow”  say  “We  travel  slowly.” 

Instead  of  “He  plunged  down  into  the  river,”  say  “ He  plunged  into  the  river  ” 

Instead  of  “ He  jumped  /ro7n  off  of  the  scaffolding,”  say  “ He  jumped  off  the 
scaffolding.” 

Instead  of  “ He  came  the  last  of  all,”  say  “ He  came  the  last.” 

Instead  of  “ ««/wrra/,”  with  reference  to  things  that  have  any  limit,  say  “gen- 
eral;”  “generally  approved,”  instead  of  “ universally  approved  generally  be- 
loved,” instead  of  “universally  beloved.” 

Instead  of  “They ruined  one  another,”  say  “They  ruined  each  other.” 

Instead  of  “If  in  case  I succeed,”  say  “ If  I succeed.” 

Instead  of  “A  large  enough  room,”  say  “A  room  large  enough.” 

Instead  of  “I  am  slight  in  comparison you,”  say  “ I am  slight  in  comparison 
with  you.” 

Instead  of  “ I went  for  to  see  him,”  say  “ I went  to  see  him.” 

Instead  of  “The  cake  is  all  eat  up,”  say  “The  cake  is  all  eaten  ” 

Instead  of  “ Handsome  is  as  handsome  does,”  say  “ Handsome  is  who  handsome 
does.” 

Instead  of  “The  book  fell  on  the  floor,”  say  “The  book  fell  to  the  floor.” 

Instead  of  “ His  opinions  are  approved  cf  by  all,”  say  “ His  opinions  are  approved 
by  all.” 

Instead  of  “ I will  add  one  more  argument,”  say  “ I will  add  one  argument  more,” 
or  “ another  argument.” 

Instead  of  “ A sad  curse  is  war,”  say  “War is  a sad  curse.” 

Instead  of  “He  stands  six  foot  high,”  say  “He  measures  six  feet,”  or  “His 
height  is  six  feet.” 

Instead  of  “ I go  e^^ery  now  and  then,”  say  “ I go  sometimes  or  often)  . 

Instead  of  ‘‘  Who  finds  him  in  clothes,”  say  “ Who  provides  him  with  clothes.” 

Say  “ The  first  two,”  and  the  last  two,”  instead  of  “the  two  first,”  “ the  two  last.” 

Instead  of  “ His  health  was  drank  with  enthusiasm”  say  “ His  health  was  drunk 
enthusiastically.” 

Instead  of"  Except  I am  prevented,”  say  “Unless  I am  prevented.” 

Instead  of  “ In  its  primary  sense,”  say  “ In  its  primitive  sense.” 

Instead  of  “ It  grieves  me  to  see  you,”  say  “ I am  grieved  to  see  you.” 

Instead  of  “ Give  me  them  papers,”  say  “ Give  me  those  papers.” 

Instead  of  “ Tho:>e  papers  I hold  in  my  hand,”  say  “ These  papers  I hold  in  my 
hand.” 

Instead  of  “ I could  scarcely  imagine  but  what,”  say  “ I could  scarcely  imagine 
but  that.” 

Instead  of  “ He  was  a man  notorious  for  his  benevolence,”  say  “ He  was  noted 
for  his  benevolence.” 

Instead  of  “She  was  a woman  celebrated  for  her  crimes,”  say  “She  was  notorious 
on  account  of  her  crimes.” 

Instead  of  “ What  may  your  name  be  ?”  say  “ What  is  your  name?” 

Instead  of  “ I lifted  it  up,"  say  “ I lifted  it.” 

Instead  of  “It  is  equally  of  the  same  value,”  say  “ It  is  of  the  same  value,”  or 
“ equal  value.” 

Instead  of  “I  knew  it  previous  to  your  telling  me,”  say  “I  knew  it  previously  to 
your  telling  me.” 

34 


'’GRAMMAR,  SPELLING  AND  PRONUNCTATT 

Instead  of  “ You  was  out  when  I called,”  say  “ You  were  out  when  I called.” 

Instead  of  “ I thought  I should  have  won  this  game,”  say  “I  thought  I should' 
win  this  game.” 

Instead  of  “ This  much  is  certain,”  say  “ Thus  much  is  certain,”  or,  “ So  much  is 
•certain.” 

Instead  of  “ He  went  away  it  waj' yesterday  week,”  say  “He  went  away 
yesterday  week.” 

Instead  of  “ He  came  the  Saturday  as  it  may  be  before  the  Monday”  specify  the 
Monday  on  which  he  came 

Instead  of  “ Put  your  watch  in  your  pocket,”  say  “Put  your  watch  into  your 
pocket.” 

Instead  of  “ He  has^ic?^  riches,”  say  “ He  has  riches.” 

Instead  of  “ Will  you  set  down  ? say  “ Will  you  sit  down  ? ” 

Instead  of  ' No  thankee,”  say  “ No,  thank  you.” 

Instead  of  “I  cannot  do  it  without  farther  means,”  say  “ I cannot  do  it  without 
further  means.” 

Instead  of  “ No  sooner  but,”  or  “ No  other  but,”  say  “ than.” 

Instead  of  Nobody  else  but  her,”  say  “Nobody  but  her  ” 

instead  of  “ He  fell  down  from  the  balloon,”  say  “ He  fell  from  the  balloon.” 

Instead  of  “ He  rose  up  from  the  ground,”  say  “He  rose  from  the  ground.” 

Instead  of  “ These  kind  of  oranges  not  good,”  say  “This  kind  of  oranges  is 
not  good.” 

Instead  of  “ Somehow  or  another,”  say  “ Somehow  or  other.” 

Instead  of  “ Will  I give  you  some  more  tea?”  say  “ Shall  I give  you  some  more 
tea  ? ” 

Instead  of  “Oh  dear,  what  will  I do?”  say  “ Oh  dear,  what  shall  I do?” 

Instead  of  “ I think  hidijferent  of  it,”  say  “ I think  indifferently  of  it.” 

Instead  of  “ I will  send  xt  conformable  to  your  orders,”  say  “ I will  send  it  con- 
formably to  your  orders.  ” 

Instead  of  “ To  be  given  away  gratis,  ” say  “ To  be  given  away.” 

Instead  of  “ Will  you  enter  in?”  say  “ Will  you  enter?” 

Instead  of  “ This  three  days  or  more,”  say  “These  three  days  or  more.” 

Instead  of  “ He  is  a bad  gra^nmarian,”  say  ‘ He  is  not  a grammarian.” 

Instead  of  ‘‘  We  accuse  him  for,”  say  “ We  accuse  him  of.” 

Instead  of  “ We  acquit  Mxmfrom,”  say  “ We  acquit  him  of.” 

Instead  of  “ I am  averse  from  that,”  say  “ I am  averse  to  that.” 

Instead  of  “ 1 confide  on  you,”  say  “ I confide  in  you.” 

Instead  of  “As  soon  as  ever,”  say  “As  soon  as  ” 

Instead  of  “The  very  best,”  or  “The  very  wortt,”  say  “The  best  or  the  worst.” 

Avoid  such  phrases  as  “No  great  shakes,”  “ Nothing  to  boast  of,”  “Down  in  my 
boots,”  “ Suffering  from  the  blues.”  All  such  sentences  indicate  vulgarity. 

Instead  of  “ No  one  hasn't  called,”  say  “ No  one  has  called  ” 

Instead  of  “ You  have  a right  to  pay  me,”  say  “ It  is  right  that  you  should  pay 
me.” 

Instead  of  “ I am  going  o^fer  the  bridge,”  say  “ I am  going  across  the  bridge.” 

Instead  of  “I  should  just  think  I could,”  say  “ I think  I can.” 

Instead  of  “There  has  been  good  deal,”  say  “ There  has  been  much  ” 

Instead  of  saying  ‘ The  effort  you  are  making  for  meeting  the  bill,”  say  “ The 
effort  you  are  making  to  meet  the  bill.” 

To  say  “ Do  not  give  him  no  more  of  your  money,”  is  equivalent  to  saying  “ Give 
him  some  of  your  money.”  Say  “ Do  not  give  him  any  of  your  money.” 

Instead  of  saying  They  are  not  what  nature  designea  them,”  say  “They  are 
are  not  what  nature  designed  them  to  be.” 

Instead  of  saying  “ I had  not  the  pleasure  of  hearing  his  sentiments  when  I wrote 
that  letter,”  say  “ I had  not  the  pleasure  of  having  heard,”  etc. 

Instead  of  “The  quality  of  the  apples  were  good,”  say  “The  quality  of  the  apples 
was  good.” 

Instead  of  “ The  want  of  learning,  courage  and  energy  are  more  visible,”  say, 
“ Is  more  visible.” 

Instead  of  “We  diey^r  want,”  say  “ We  die  of  want.” 

Instead  of  “ He  died  by  fever,”  say  “ He  died  of  fever.” 

35 


WlRAMMAR,  SPELLING  AND  PRONUNCIATION. 

Instead  of  “ I enjoy  \i2A  health/’  say  “ My  health  is  not  good.” 

Instead  of  **  Either  of  the  three,”  say  “ Any  one  of  the  three.” 

Instead  of  “ Better  nor  that,”  say  “ Better  than  that.” 

Instead  of  “ We  often  think  you,”  say  “We  often  think  of  you.” 

Instead  of  “ Mine  is  so  good  as  yours,”  say  “Mine  is  as  good  as  yours.” 

Instead  of  “ This  town  is  not  as  large  as  we  thought,”  say  “ This  town  is  not  so 
large  as  we  thought.” 

Instead  of  ''‘Because  why?”  say  “Why?” 

Instead  of  “ That  there  boy,”  say  “ That  boy.” 

Instead  of  “That  horse  is  not  much  worth'^  say  “The  horse  is  not  worth  much.” 

Instead  of  “ The  subject-matter  of  debate,”  say  “ The  subject  of  debate.” 

Instead  of  saying  “ When  he  was  come  back,”  say  “ When  he  had  come  back.” 

Instead  of  saying  “His  health  has  been  shook,''  say  “His  health  has  been 
shaken.” 

Instead  of  “ It  was  spoke  in  my  presence,”  say  “ It  was  spoken  in  my  presence.” 

Instead  of  “ Very  right,”  or  “ Very  wrong,”  say  “ Right,”  or  “ Wrong.” 

Instead  of  “The  mortgageor  ^20^  him  the  money,”  say  “ The  mortgagee  paid 
him  the  money,”  The  mortgagee  lends  ; the  mortgageor  borrows. 

Instead  of  “ I took  you  to  be  another  person,”  say  “ I mistook  you  for  another  per- 
son.” 

Instead  of  “ On  either  side  of  the  river,”  say  “ On  each  side  of  the  river.” 

Instead  of  “ 2 here's  fifty,”  say  “ There  are  fifty.” 

Instead  of  “ The  best  of  the  two,”  say  “The  better  of  the  two.” 

Instead  of  “ My  clothes  have  become  too  small  for  me,”  say  “ I have  grown  too 
stout  for  my  clothes.” 

Instead  of  “Two  spoonsful  of  physic,”  say  “ Two  spoonfuls  of  physic  ** 

Instead  of  “ She  said,  says  she,”  say  “She  said.” 

Avoid  such  phrases  as  “ I said,  says  I,”  “ Thinks  1 to  myself,’*  etc.  • 

Instead  of  “ I don’t  think  so,”  say  “I  think  not.” 

Instead  of  “ He  was  in  eminent  danger,”  say  “He  was  in  imminent  danger.” 

Instead  of  “ The  weather  is  hot,"  say  “ The  weather  is  very  warm.” 

Instead  of  “I  sweat,"  say  “I  perspire.” 

Instead  of  “ I only  want  two  dollars,”  say  “ I want  only  two  dollars.” 

Instead  of  “ Whatsomever,”  say  “ Whatever,”  or  “ Whatsoever.” 

Avoid  such  exclamations  as  “God  bless  me  \ " God  deliver  me  !”  “ By  God  ! ” 
“By  Gosh!”  “My  Lord!”  ‘‘ Upon  my  soul,”  etc.,  which  are  vulgar  on  the  one 
hand,  and  savor  of  impiety  on  the  other,  for — “Thou  shalt  not  take  the  name  of  the 
Lord  thy  God  in  vain.” 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Accent  is  a particular  stress  or  force  of  the  voice  upon  certain  syllables  or  words. 
This  mark  ' in  printing  denotes  the  syllable  upon  which  the  stress  or  force  of  the 
voice  should  be  placed. 

A word  may  have  more  than  one  accent.  Take  as  an  instance  aspiration.  In 
uttering  this  word  we  give  a marked  emphasis  of  the  voice  upon  the  first  and  third 
syllables,  and  therefore  those  syllables  are  said  to  be  accented.  The  first  of  these 
accents  is  less  distinguishable  than  the  second,  upon  which  we  dwell  longer,  there- 
fore the  second  accent  in  point  of  order  is  called  the  primary,  or  chief  accent  of  the 
word. 

When  the  full  accent  falls  on  a vowel,  that  vowel  should  have  a long  sound,  as  in 
vo'cal ; but  when  it  falls  on  or  after  a consonant,  the  preceding  vowel  has  a short 
sound,  as  in  hab'it. 

To  obtain  a good  knowledge  of  pronunciation,  it  is  advisable  for  the  reader  to 
listen  to  the  examples  given  by  good  speakers,  and  by  educated  persons.  We  learn 
the  pronunciation  of  words,  to  a great  extent,  by  imitation,  just  as  birds  acquire  the 
notes  of  other  birds  which  may  be  near  them. 

But  it  will  be  very  important  to  bear  in  mind  that  there  are  many  words  having  a 
double  meaning  or  application,  and  that  the  difference  of  meaning  is  indicated  by 
the  difference  of  the  accent.  Among  these  words,  nouns  are  distinguished  from 

3G 


grammar,  spelling  and  pronunciation. 

verbs  by  this  means : nouns  are  mostly  accented  on  the  first  syllable,  and  verbs  on 
the  last. 

Noun  signifies  name;  nouns  are  the  names  of  persons  and  things,  as  well  as  of 
things  not  material  and  palpable,  but  of  which  we  have  a conception  and  knowl- 
edge, such  as  courage,  firmness,  goodness,  strength  ; and  verbs  express  actions, 
movements,  &c.  If  the  word  used  signifies  that  anything  has  been  done,  or  is  being 
done,  or  is,  or  is  to  be  done,  then  that  word  is  a verb. 

Thus  when  we  say  that  anything  is  “ an  in'sult,”  that  word  is  a noun,  and  is  ac- 
cented on  the  first  syllable  ; but  when  we  say  he  did  it  ‘‘to  insult'  another  person,” 
the  word  insult'  acting,  and  becomes  a verb,  and  should  be  accented  on  the 

last  syllable. 

A list  of  nearly  all  the  words  that  are  liable  to  similar  variation  is  given  here.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  those  in  the  first  column,  having  the  accent  on  the  first  syllable, 
are  mostly  nouns ; and  that  those  in  the  second  column,  which  have  the  accent  on 
the  second  and  final  syllable,  are  mostly  verbs: — 


Noun,  dr^c. 

Ab'ject 

Ab'sent 

Ab'stract 

Ac'cent 

Affix 

As'pect 

Attribute 

Aug'ment 

Au'gust 

Bonj/bard 

Col'league 

Col'lect 

Com'ment 

Com'pact 

Com'plot 

Com'port 

Com'pound 

Com'press 

Con'cert 

Con'crete 

Con'duct 

Con'fine 

Con'flict 

Con 'serve 

Con'sort 

Con'test 

Con 'text 

Con 'tract 


Verb,  &^c. 

abject' 

absent' 

abstract' 

accent' 

affix' 

aspect' 

attrib'ute 

augment' 

august' 

bombard' 

colleague' 

collect' 

comment' 

compact' 

complot' 

comport' 

compound' 

compress' 

concert' 

concrete' 

conduct' 

confine' 

conflict' 

conserve' 

consort' 

contest' 

context' 

contract' 


Noun,  &^c. 

Con'trast 

Con'verse 

Con 'vert 

Con'vict 

Con'voy 

De'crease 

Des'cant 

Des'ert 

De'tail 

Di'gest 

Dis'cord 

Dis'count 

Efflux 

Es'cort 

Es'say 

Ex'ile 

Ex'port 

Ex'tract 

Fer'ment 

Fore'cast 

Fore'taste 

Fre'quent 

Im'part 

Im'port 

Im'press 

Im'print 

In'cense 

In 'crease 


Verb,  d^c. 

contrast' 

converse' 

convert' 

convict' 

convoy' 

decrease' 

descant' 

desert' 

detail' 

digest' 

discord' 

discount' 

efflux' 

escort' 

essay' 

exile' 

export' 

extract' 

ferment' 

forecast' 

foretaste' 

frequent' 

impart' 

import' 

impress' 

imprint' 

incense' 

increase' 


Noun,  &^c. 

In'lay 

In'sult 

Ob'ject 

Out'leap 

Per'fect 

Per'fume 

Per'mit 

Pre'fix 

Prem'ise 

Pres'age 

Pres'ent 

Prod'uce 

Proj'ect 

Pro' test 

Reb'el 

Rec'ord 

Refuse 

Re'tail 

Sub'ject 

Su'pine 

Sur'vey 

Tor'ment 

Traj ' ect 

Trans'fer 

Trans'port 

Un'dress 

Up'cast 

Up'start 


Verb,  St^c. 

inlay 

insult' 

object' 

outleap' 

perfect' 

perfume' 

permit' 

prefix' 

premise' 

presage' 

present' 

produce' 

project' 

protest' 

rebel' 

record' 

refuse' 

retail' 

subject' 

supine' 

survey' 

torment' 

traj  ect' 

transfer' 

transport' 

undress' 

upcast' 

upstart' 


Cement'  is  an  exception  to  the  above  rule,  and  should  always  be  accented  on  the 
last  syllable.  So  also  the  word  consols'. 


RULES  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 

C before  a,  o,  and  u,  and  in  some  other  situations,  is  a close  articulation,  like  k. 
Before  e,  i,  and  y,  c is  precisely  equivalent  to  .r  in  same,  this ; as  in  cedar,  civil, 
cypress,  capacity. 

E final  indicates  that  the  preceding  vowel  is  long ; as  in  hate,  mete,  sire,  robe, 
lyre,  abate,  recede,  invite,  remote,  intrude. 

E final  indicates  that  c preceding  has  the  soqpd  of  j ; as  in  lace,  lance  : and  that 
g preceding  has  the  sound  of  j,  as  in  charge,  page,  challenge. 

E final  in  proper  English  words,  never  forms  a syllable,  and  in  the  most  usee} 
words,  in  the  terminating  unaccented  syllable  it  is  silent.  Thus,  motive,  genuine, 
examine,  granite,  are  pronounced  motiv,  genuin,  examin,  granit. 

E fipali  ip  a few  words  of  foreign  origin,  form^  a syllable  ; as  syncope,  ^iniilf> 


GRAMMAR,  SPELLING  AND  PRONUNCIATION, 

E final  is  silent  after  / in  the  following  terminations, — ble,  cle,  dle,fle,  gle,  kle,  pie, 
tie,  zle  : as  in  able,  manacle,  cradle,  ruffle,  mangle,  wrinkle,  supple,  rattle, puzzle,, 
which  are  pronounced  mana'cl,  cra'd.1,  rufff,  man'gl,  wrin*kl,  sup’ pi,  puz’zl. 

E is  usually  silent  in  the  termination  en  ; as  in  token,  broken  ; pronounced  tokn, 
brokn. 

OUS,  in  the  termination  of  adjectives  and  their  derivatives,  is  pronounced  us  ; 
in  gracious,  pious,  pompously. 

CE,  Cl,  TI,  before  a vowel,  have  the  sound  of  sk  : as  in  cetaceous,  gracious,  7no- 
tion,  partial,  ingratiate ; pronounced  cetashus,  grashus,  7noshun,  parshal, 
ingrashiate. 

SI,  after  an  accented  vowel,  is  pronounced  like  zh  ; as  in  Ephesian,  confusion  ; 
pronounced  Ephezhan,  confuzhon. 

'GH,  both  in  the  middle  and  at  the  end  of  words  is  silent;  as  in  caught,  bought, 
fright,  nigh,  sigh  ; pronounced  caut,  baut,  /rite,  ni,  si.  In  the  following  excep- 
tions, however,  gh  are  pronounced  as  f : — cough,  chough,  dough,  enough,  laugh, 
rough,  slough,  tough,  trough. 

When  WH  begins  a word,  the  aspirate  h precedes  w in  pronunciation : as  in 
what,  whiff,  whale  : pronounced  hwzt,  hwiff,  hwale,  w having  precisely  the  sound 
of  00,  French  ou.  In  the  following  words  w is  silent : — who,  whom,  whose,  whoop, 
whole. 

H after  r has  no  sound  or  use  ; as  in  rheum,  rhyme',  pronounced  reum,  ryme. 

H should  be  sounded  in  the  middle  of  words;  as  in  forehead,  ab^or,  behold,  ex- 
haust, inhabit,  unAorse. 

H should  always  be  sounded  except  in  the  following  words : — heir,  herb,  honest, 
ponor,  hour,  humor,  and  humble,  and  all  their  derivatives, — such  as  humorously, 
herived  from  humor. 

K and  G are  silent  before  n ; as  know,  gnaw ; pronounced  no,  naw. 

W before  r is  silent ; as  in  wring,  wreath  ; pronounced  ring,  reath. 

B after  m is  silent ; as  in  dumb,  numb  ; pronounced  dum,  num. 

L before  k is  silent  as  in  balk,  walk,  talk  ; pronounced  bauk,  wauk,  tauk. 

PH  has  the  sound  of  f : as  in  philosophy  ; pronounced  filosofy. 

NG  has  two  sounds,  one  as  in  singer,  the  other  as  in  fin-ger. 

N after  m,  and  closing  a syllable,  is  silent ; as  in  hymn,  condemn. 

P before  j and  t is  mute  ; as  in  psalm,  pseudo,  ptarmigan  : pronounced  sarm, 
sudo,  tarmigan. 

R has  two  sounds,  one  strong  and  vibrating,  as  at  the  beginning  of  words  and  sylla- 
bles, such  as  robber,  reckon,  error  ; the  other  is  at  the  terminations  of  the  words,  or 
when  succeeded  by  a consonant,  as  farmer,  morn. 

There  are  other  rules  of  pronunciation  affecting  the  combinations  of  vowels,  etc.  ; 
but  as  they  are  more  difficult  to  describe,  and  as  they  do  not  relate  to  errors  which 
are  commonly  prevalent,  it  will  suffice  to  give  examples  of  them  in  the  following  list 
of  words.  When  a syllable  in  any  word  in  this  list  is  printed  in  italics,  accent  or, 
stress  of  voice  should  be  laid  on  that  syllable. 


WORDS  OFTEN  MISPRONOUNCED. 


Again,  usually  pronounced  2i-gen,  not  as 
spelled. 

Alien,  ale-yen,  not  a-ll-en. 

Antipodes,  an-^/)>-o-dees. 

Apostle,  as  a-pos’ I,  without  the  t. 

Arch,  artch  in  compounds  of  our  own 
language,  as  in  archbishop,  archduke ; 
but  ark  in  words  derived  from  the 
Greek,  as  archaic,  ar-^a-ik ; archaeolo- 
gy, ar-ke-^>/-o-gy ; archangel,  ark-a/«- 
j^ei ; archetype,  ar-ke-type  ; archiepis- 

38 


copal,  ar-ke-e-/2J-co-pal ; archipelago, 
ar-ke-/^/-a-go ; ar-chives,  ar-V\vz,  etc. 
Asia,  rt-shia. 

Asparagus  as  spe’Ied,’not  asparagrass. 
Aunt,  ant,  not  awnt. 

Awkward,  awk-wurd,  not  awk-urd. 
Bade,  bad. 

Because,  he-caws,  not  hQ-cos. 

Been,  bin. 

Beloved,  as  a verb,  h^-luvd  \ as  an  ad- 
jective, be-/2^z/-ed.  Blessed,  cursed* 


GRAMMAR,  SPELLING  AND  PRONUNCIATION. 


etc.,  are  subject  to  the  same  rule. 
Beneath,  with  the  th  in  breath,  not  with 
the  th  in  breathe. 

Biog'raphy,  as  spelled,  not  beography. 
Caprice,  capreece. 

Catch,  as  spelled,  not  ketch. 

Chaos,  >fea-oss. 

Charlatan,  shar-\zt2in. 

Chasm,  kazm. 

Chasten,  chasn. 

Chivalry,  shzv-ahy. 

Chemistry,  kem’ -is-try. 

Choir,  kwire. 

Combat,  kom-^a\.. 

Conduit,  kun-^\\.. 

Corps,  kor : the  plural  corps  is  pro- 
nounced korz. 

Covetous,  cuv-G-ius,  not  cuv-e-chus. 
Courteous  ^:«r^-yus. 

Courtesy  (politeness),  ^-wr-te-sey. 
Courtesy  (a  lowering  of  the  body),  curt- 
sey. 

Cresses,  as  spelled,  not  cr^^-ses. 
Cu'riosity,  cu-re-t?J-e-ty,  not  cur^jity. 
Cushion,  coosh-nn,  not  coosh-/«. 

Daunt,  dawnt,  not  dant  or  darnt. 

Design  and  desist  have  the  sound  of  not 
of  z. 

Desire  should  have  the  sound  of  z. 

Dew,  due,  not  doo. 

Diamond,  as  spelled,  not  di-mond. 
Diploma,  de-//^-ma,  not  dipAo-ma. 
Diplomacy,  de-//i?-ma-cy,  not  dip-\o-ma- 

cy- 

Divers  (several),  di-vtxz  \ but  diverse 
(different),  ^i'z-verse. 

Drought,  drowt,  not  drawt. 

Duke,  as  spelled,  not  dook. 

Dynasty,  z/y-nas-ty,  not  dyn-a%-\.^. 

Edict,  ^-dickt,  not  ^^/-ickt. 

E’en,  and  e’er,  een  and  air. 

Egotism,  ^-go-tism,  not  ^^-o-tism. 

Either,  ^-ther. 

Engine,  ^«-jin,  not  z«-jin. 

Epistle,  without  the  t. 

Epitome,  c-/zV-o-me. 

Epoch,  ^/-ock,  not  <?-pock. 

Equinox,  ^-qui-nox,  not  ^^-kwe-nox. 
Europe,  iZ-rup,  not  £/-rope. 

Euro-/^-an,  not  Eu-rz^-pean. 

Every,  ev-tx-y,  not  ^-ry. 

Executor,  cgz-^tr-utor,  not  with  the  sound 
of  .r.  ^ 

Extraordinary,  ex-Zr^Tr-di-ner-i,  not  ex- 
traord inary,  nor  extrornary. 

February,  as  spelled,  not  Febuary. 
Finance,  i^-nance,  noty?nance. 
Foundling,  as  spelled,  not/b^sd  ling. 
Garden,  ^ar-dn,  not  gar-den,  nor  gard- 
ing. 

Gauntlet,  gawnt-Iet,  not^a«/-let. 


Geography,  as  spelled,  not  yi5»^raphy,  or 
gehography. 

Geometry,  as  spelled,  not  jom-tXry. 
Haunt,  hawnt,  not  hant. 

Height,  hite,  not  highth. 

Heinous,  hay-nus,  not  ^^^-nus. 

Horizon,  ho-ri-zn,  not  hor-'i-zon. 
Hymeneal,  hy-men-^-al,  not  hy-menal. 
Instead,  in-sted,  not  instid. 

Isolate,  /-so-late,  not  zz-olate,  nor  is- 
olate. 

Jalap,  jal-ap,  not  jolup. 

January,  as  spelled,  notjenuary  norjane- 
wary. 

Leave,  as  spelled,  not  leaf. 

Legend,  iej-end,  or  le-gend. 

Many,  men-ney,  not  man-ny. 
Marchioness,  z«<zr-shun-ess,  not  as  spelled. 
Massacre,  w^zj-sa-ker. 

Mattress,  as  spelled,  not  mat-trass. 
Matron,  ma-trun,  not  mat-ron. 

Medicine,  med-e-cin,  not  med-cln. 

Minute  (sixty  seconds),  min-\t. 

Minute  (small),  vs\\-nute. 

Mischievous,  wzj-chiv-us,  not  m\s-cheev- 


Ne’er,  for  never,  nare. 

New,  nu,  not  noo. 

Oblige,  as  spelled,  not  obleege. 

Oblique,  ob-leek,  or  o-blike. 

Odorous,  z7-der-us,  not  od-ur-us. 

Of,  ov,  except  when  compounded  with 
there,  here  and  where,  which  should 
be  pronounced  here-^,  there-q^,  and 
where-^ 

Off,  as  spelt,  not  awf. 

Organization,  or-gan-i-za-shun. 

Ostrich,  <7j-trich,  not  (?j-tridge. 

Pageant,  paj-ent,  not  /a-jant. 

Parent,  pare-ent,  not  par-ent. 

Partisan,  par-te-zan,  not  par-te-zan,  nor 
Par-ti-zan. 

Physiognomy,  as yiz-i-o£--nomy,  not  physi- 
onnomy. 

Pincers,  pin-cerz,  not  pinch-erz. 

Plaintiff,  as  spelled,  not  plantiff. 

Precedent  (an  example), /rr.r-e-dent ; pre- 
<rr-dent  (going  before  in  point  of  time, 
previous,  former)  is  the  pronunciation 
of  the  adjective. 

Prologue, /w-log,  not  Prol-og. 

Radish,  as  spelled,  not,red-ish. 

Raillery,  raiV-ex-y,  or  ral-er-y,  not  as 
spelled. 

Rather,  ra-ther,  not  ray-ther. 

Resort,  xe-zort. 

Resound,  xe-zound. 

Respite,  rt^-pit,  not  as  spelled. 

Rout  (a  party;  and  to  rout)  should  be  pro- 
nounced rowt.  Route  (a  road),  root  ot 
rowt. 

39 


GRAMMAR,  SPELLING  AND  PRONUNCIATION. 


Saunter,  j«7£/«-ter,  notsarn-ter  or  san-ter. 

Sausage,  saw-sage,  not  j-^^j-sidge,  sas- 
sage. 

Schedule,  sked-u\e,  not  shed-ule. 

Seamstress  is  pronounced  jr^^w-stress,  but 
semp-stress,  as  the  word  is  sometimes 
spelt,  in  pronounced  ^^w-stress. 

Shire,  as  spelled,  when  uttered  as  a single 
word,  but  shortened  into  shir  in  compo- 
sition. 

Shone,  shon,  not  shun,  nor  as  spelled. 

Soldier,  so/e-jer. 

Solecism,  j^7/-e-cizm,  not  j<?-le-cizm. 

Soot,  as  spelled,  not  sut. 

Sovereign,  sov-er-inj  or  suv-er-in. 

Specious,  j/^-shus,  not  spesh-\xs. 

Stomacher,  sium-a-cher. 

Stone  (weight),  as  spelled,  not  stun. 

Synod,  stn-od,  not  5j/-nod. 

Tenure,  ^en-ure,  not  ^^-nure, 

Tenet,  ten-et,  not  ie-xiet. 


Than,  as  spelled,  not  thun. 

Tremor,  trem-ur,  not  tre-mor. 

Twelfth  should  have  the  th  sounded. 
Umbrella,  as  spelled,  not  um-ber-el-Ia. 
Vase,  vaiz  or  vahz,  not  vawze. 

Was,  woz,  not  wuz. 

Weary,  weer-i,  not  wary. 

Were,  wer,  not  ware. 

Wrath,  rawth,  not  rath : as  an  adjective 
it  is  spelled  wr(?th,  and  pronounced  with 
the  vowel  sound  shorter,  as  in  wrath- 
ful, etc. 

Yacht,  yot,  not  yat. 

Zenith,  zen-ith,  not  2^-nith. 

Zodiac,  £:o-de-ak. 

Zoology  should  have  both  ds  sounded,  as 
zo-ol-o-gy,  not  zoo-\o-gy, 

Note.—liYie  tendency  of  all  good  elocu- 
tionists is  to  pronounce  as  nearly  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  spelling  as  possible. 


Pronounce^ 

•=^ace,  not  iss,  asfurnar^,  not  furmw. 

—age,  not  idge,  as  cabbage,  courage,  postage,  village. 

•^ain,  ane,  not  in,  as  certain,  certa«^,  not  cert/«. 

— ate,  not  it,  as  modera^^,  not  moderzV. 

— ect,  not  ec,  as  asp^^r^,  not  asp^c  : subject,  not  subj^t:. 

— ed,  not  id,  or  ud,  as  wicked,  not  wickz'd,  or  wickad. 

— el,  not  1,  model,  not  7nodl ; novel,  not  novl. 

— en,  not  n,  as  sudd^«,  not  sudd^. — Burden,  burthen,  garden,  lengthen,  seven, 
strengthen,  often,  and  a few  others,  have  the  e silent. 

— ence,  not  unce,  as  influence,  not  indu-unce. 

— es,  not  is,  as  pleas^j,  not  pleas/j. 

— ile  should  be  pronounced  il,  as  fertzV,  not  fertile,  in  all  words  except  chamomile 
(cam),  exile,  gentile,  infantile,  reconcile,  and  senik,  which  should  be  pronounced 
ile. 

— in,  not  n,  as  Latz«,  not  Latzz. 

nd,  not  n,  as  husba«z/,  not  husbaw  ; thousawz/,  not  thousazz. 

— uess,  not  niss,  as  careiulness,  not  carefuln/ss. 

— ng,  not  n,  as  singizz^,  not  singizz ; speakizz^,  not  speakizz. 

— ngth,  not  nth,  as  strezz^th,  not  strezzth. 

—son,  the  o should  be  silent ; as  in  treason,  tre-zn,  not  tre-son. 

tal,  not  tie,  as  capital,  not  qapi^/^  ; metal,  not  mettle  ; mortal,  not  mortle  ; periodi- 

cal,  not  periodi^‘^<?. 

— xt,  not  X,  as  uejr/,  not  near. 


WHAT’S  IN  A NAME? 


An  Englishman  whose  name  was  Wemyss 
Went  crazy  at  last,  so  it  semyss. 

Because  the  people  would  not 
Understand  that  they  ought 
To  call  him  not  Weemis,  but  Weems. 

Another  whose  last  name  was  Knollys 
Tried  vainly  to  vote  at  the  pollys  ; 

But  no  ballot  he  cast 
Because  to  the  last 

The  clerk  couldn’t  call  Knolliss  Noles. 

40 


GRAMMAR,  SPELLING  AND  PRONl}NCIATION. 

And  then  a young  butcher  named  Belvoir 
Went  and  murdered  a man  with  a devoir 
Because  the  man  couldn’t, 

Or  possibly  wouldn’t. 

Pronounce  his  name  properly  Beever. 

There  was  an  athlete  named  Strachan 
Who  had  plenty  of  sinew  and  brachan, 

And  he’d  knock  a man  down 
With  an  indignant  frown 
If  he  failed  to  pronounce  his  name  Strawn. 


SHORT  RULES  FOR  SPELLING. 

Words  ending  in  e drop  that  letter  on  taking  a suffix  beginning  with  a vowel. 
Exceptions — words  ending  in  ^e,  ce,  or  oe. 

Final  e of  a primitive  word  is  retained  on  taking  a suffix  beginning  with  a conso- 
nant. Exceptions — wordsending  in  dge,  and  truly,  duly,  etc. 

Final  y of  a primitive  word,  when  preceded  by  a consonant,  is  generally  changed 
into  i on  the  addition  of  a suffix.  Exceptions — retained  before  ing  and  Ish,  as 
pitying.  Words  ending  in  ie  and  dropping  the  e by  Rule  i,  change  the  i to  y,  as 
lying.  Final  y is  sometimes  changed  to  e,  as  duteous. 

Nounsending  in  y,  preceded  by  a vowel,  form  their  plural  by  adding  s;  as 
money,  moneys.  Y preceded  by  a consonant  is  changed  to  ies  in  the  plural;  as 
bounty,  bounties. 

Final  y of  a primitive  word,  preceded  by  a vowel,  should  not  be  changed  into  I 
before  a suffix;  as,  joyless. 

In  words  containing  el  or  ie,  ei  is  used  after  the  sound  of  s;  as  ceiling,  seize,  ex- 
cept in  siege  and  a few  words  ending  in  cier.  Inveigle,  neither,  leisure  and  weird 
also  have  ei.  ^ In  other  cases  it  is  used,  as  in  believe,  achieve. 

Words  ending  in  ceous  or  clous,  when  relating  to  matter,  end  in  ceous;  all 
others  in  clous. 

Words  of  one  syllable,  ending  in  a consonant,  with  a single  vowel  before  It,  double 
the  consonants  in  derivatives:  as,  ship,  shipping,  etc.  But  if  ending  in  a consonant 
with  a double  vowel  before  it,  they  do  not  double  the  consonant  in  derivatives;  as 
troop,  trooper,  etc. 

Words  of  more  than  one  syllable,  ending  in  a consonant  preceded  by  a single 
vowel,  and  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  double  that  consonant  in  derivatives;  as 
commit,  committed;  but  except  chagrin,  chagrined. 

All  words  of  one  syllable  ending  in  I,  with  a single  vowel  before  it,  have  II  at  the 
close;  as  mill,  sell. 

All  words  of  one  syllable  ending  in  !,  with  a double  vowel  before  it,  have  only  one 
1 at  the  close;  as  mail,  sail. 

The  words  foretell,  distill,  instill  and  fulfill,  retain  the  double  II  of  their  primi- 
tives. Derivatives  of  dull,  skill,  will  and  full  also  retain  the  double  11  when  the 
accent  falls  on  these  words;  as  dullness,  skillful,  willful,  fullness. 


PUNCTUATION. 

A period  (.)  after  every  declarative  and  every  imperative  sentence  ; as.  It  is  true. 
Do  right. 

A period  after  every  abbreviation;  as.  Dr.,  Mr.,  Capt. 

An  interrogation  point  (?)  after  every  question. 

The  exclamation  point  (1)  after  exclamations;  as,  Alas!  Oh,  how  lovely! 
Quotation  marks  (“  ”)  enclose  quoted  expressions:  as,  Socrates  said:  “I  be- • 
lieve  the  soul  is  immortal.’* 

A colon  (:)  is  used  between  parts  of  a sentence  that  are  subdivided  by  semi* 
colons. 

A colon  Is  used  before  a quotation,  enumeratign,  or  observation,  that  Is  intro- 

41 


PUNCTUATION. 


duced  by  as  follows,  the  following,  or  any  similar  expression;  as,  Send  me  the 
following:  lo  doz.  “Armstrong’s  Treasury,”  25  Schulte’s  Manual,  etc. 

A semicolon  (;)  between  parts  that  are  subdivided  by  commas. 

The  semicolon  is  used  also  between  clauses  or  members  that  are  disconnected 
in  sense;  as,  Man  grows  old;  he  passes  away;  all  is  uncertain.  When  as,  namely, 
that  is,  is  used  to  introduce  an  example  or  enumeration,  a semicolon  is  put  before 
it  and  a comma  after  it;  as.  The  night  was  cold;  that  is,  for  the  time  of  year. 

A comma  ( J is  used  to  set  off  co-ordinate  clauses,  and  subordinate  clauses  not 
restrictive;  as,  Good  deeds  are  never  lost,  though  sometimes  forgotten. 

A comnaa  is  used  to  set  off  transposed  phrases  and  clauses;  as,  “When  the 
wicked  entice  thee,  consent  thou  not.” 

A comma  is  used  to  set  off  interposed  words,  phrases  and  clauses;  as.  Let  us,  it 
we  can,  make  others  happy. 

A comma  is  used  between  similar  or  repeated  words  or  phrases;  as.  The  sky, 
the  water,  the  trees,  were  illumined  with  sunlight.^ 

A comma  is  used  to  mark  an  ellipsis,  or  the  omission  of  a verb  or  other  important 
word. 

A comma  is  used  to  set  off  a short  quotation  informally  introduced;  as.  Who 
said,  “The  good  die  young”  ? 

A comma  is  used  whenever  necessary  to  prevent  ambiguity. 

The  marks  of  parenthesis  { ) are  used  to  enclose  an  interpolation  where  such 
interpolation  is  by  the  writer  or  speaker  of  the  sentence  in  which  it  occurs.  Interpo- 
lations by  an  editor  or  by  anyone  other  than  the  author  of  the  sentence  should  be 
inclosed  in  brackets,  []. 

Dashes  (— ) may  be  used  to  set  off  a parenthetical  expression,  also  to  denote  an 
interruption  or  a sudden  change  of  thought  or  a significant  pause. 


THE  USE  OF  CAPITALS. 

1.  Every  entire  sentence  should  begin  with  a capital. 

2.  Proper  names,  and  adjectives  derived  from  these,  should  begin  with  a capital. 

3.  All  appellations  of  the  Deity  should  begin  with  a capital. 

4.  Official  and  honorary  titles  begin  with  a capital. 

5.  Every  line  of  poetry  should  begin  with  a capital. 

6.  Titles  of  books  and  the  heads  of  their  chapters  and  divisions  are  printed  in 
capitals. 

7.  The  pronoun  i,  and  the  exclamation,  O,  are  always  capitals. 

8.  The  days  of  the  week,  and  the  months  of  the  year,  begin  with  capitals. 

9.  Every  quotation  should  begin  with  a capital  letter, 
xo.  Names  of  religious  denominations  begin  with  capitals. 

11.  In  preparing  accounts,  each  item  should  begin  with  a capital, 

12.  Any  word  of  special  importance  may  begin  with  a capital. 


HOW  TO  WRITE  A LETTER. 

A business  letter  should  be  written  clearly,  explicitly,  and  concisely. 

Figures  should  be  written  out,  except  dates;  sums  of  money  should  be  both  in 
writing  and  figures. 

Copies  should  be  kept  of  all  business  letters. 

When  you  receive  a letter  containing  money  it  should  be  immediately  counted 
and  the  amount  marked  on  the  top  margin. 

Letters  to  a stranger  about  one’s  own  personal  affairs,  requesting  answer,  should 
always  inclose  a stamp. 

Short  sentences  are  preferable  to  long  ones. 

Letters  requiring  an  answer  should  have  prompt  attention. 

Never  write  a letter  while  under  excrtement  or  when  in  an  unpleasant  fmmor. 

Never  write  an  anonymous  letter. 

Do  not  fill  your  letter  with  repetitions  and  apologies. 

42 


NOW  TO  WRITE  A LETTER. 

Avoid  writing  with  a pencil.  Use  black  ink.  Blue  or  violet  may  be  used,  but 
black  is  better. 

In  acknowledging  receipt  of  a letter  always  mention  date.^ 

Paper.  Note,  packet  or  letter  size  should  be  used.  It  is  unbusiness-like  and 
very  poor  taste  to  use  foolscap  or  mere  scraps. 

Paging.  If  single  sheets  are  used  they  should  be  carefully  paged.  Business 
letters  should  be  written  on  but  one  side  of  the  sheet. 

Folding.  A letter  sheet  should  be  folded  from  bottom  upward.  Bring  lower 
edge  near  the  top  so  as  to  make  the  length  a trifle  shorter  than  the  envelope,  then 
fold  twice  the  other  way.  The  folded  sheet  should  be  just  slightly  smaller  than  the 
envelope. 

If  note  sheet,  fold  twice  from  bottom  upward.  If  envelope  is  nearly  square,  single 
fold  of  note  sheet  is  sufficient. 

Envelopes,  like  the  paper,  should  be  white,  and  of  corresponding  size  and 
quality.  It  is  poor  taste  to  use  colored  paper,  or  anything  but  black  ink. 

The  postage  stamp  should  be  placed  at  the  upper  right  hand  corner. 

Address.  This  should  be  so  plainly  written  that  no  possible  mistake  could  be 
made  either  in  name  or  address.  It  is  unnecessary  to  add  the  letters  P O.  after  the 
name  of  the  place.  When  the  letter  reaches  the  town  it  is  not  likely  to  gcf  to  the 
court-house  or  jail.  Letters  of  introduction  should  bear  upon  envelope  the  name 
and  address  of  the  person  to  whom  sent,  also  the  words  in  the  lower  left  hand  corner, 
'‘Introducing  Mr. .” 


Luminous  Paint. — This  useful  paint  may,  it  is  said,  be  made 
by  the  following  simple  method  : Take  oyster  shells  and  clean 
them  with  warm  water ; put  them  into  the  fire  for  half  an  hour ; 
it  the  end  of  that  time  take  them  out  and  let  them  cool.  When 
^uite  cool  pound  them  fine  and  take  away  any  gray  parts,  as  they 
ire  of  no  use.  Put  the  powder  in  a crucible  in  alternate  layers 
'vith  flour  and  sulphur.  Put  on  the  lid  and  cement  with  sand 
made  into  a stiff  paste  with  beer.  When  dry,  put  over  the  fire 
md  bake  for  an  hour.  Wait  until  quite  cold  before  opening  the 
>rid.  The  product  ought  to  be  white.  You  must  separate  all 
^jray  parts,  as  they  are  not  luminous.  Make  a sifter  in  the  follow- 
kfig  manner  : Take  a pot,  put  a piece  of  very  fine  muslin  very 
loosely  across  it,  tie  around  with  a string,  put  the  powder  into 
the  top,  and  rake  about  until  only  the  coarse  powder  remains ; 
open  the  pot  and  you  will  find  a very  small  powder ; mix  it  into 
a thin  paint  with  gum  water,  as  two  thin  applications  are  better 
than  one  thick  one.  This  will  give  a paint  that  will  remain 
luminous  far  into  the  night,  provided  it  is  exposed  to  light  during 
the  day. 


Transferring  Engravings. — It  is  said  that  engravings  may 
be  transferred  on  white  paper  as  follows  : Place  the  engraving 
a few  seconds  over  the  vapor  of  iodine.  Dip  a slip  of  white  paper 
in  a weak  solution  of  starch,  and  when  dry,  in  a weak  solution  of 
oil  of  vitriol.  When  again  dry,  lay  a slip  upon  the  engraving  and 
place  both  for  a few  minutes  under  a press.  The  engraving  will 
be  reproduced  in  all  its  delicacy  and  finish.  Lithographs  and 
printed  matter  cannot  be  so  transferred  with  equal  success. 

• 43 


SYNONYMS  AND  ANTONYMS. 


A Dictionary  of  12,000  Words  of  Similar  and  Contrary 
Meaning. 

NO  TWO  words  in  the  English  language  have  exactly  the 
same  significance,  but  to  express  the  precise  meaning  which 
one  intends  to  convey,  and  also  to  avoid  repetitions,  it  is 
often  desirable  to  have  at  hand  a Dictionary  of  Synonyms.  Take 
President  Cleveland’s  famous  phrase,  “innocuous  desuetude.” 
If  he  had  said  simply,  “harmless  disuse,”  it  would  have  sounded 
clumsy,  whereas  the  words  he  used  expressed  the  exact  shade  of 
meaning,  besides  giving  the  world  a new  phrase  and  the  news- 
papers something  to  talk  about. 

The  following  list  of  Synonyms,  while  not  exhaustive,  is 
quite  comprehensive,  and  by  cross-reference  will  answer  most 
requirements.  The  appended  Antonyms,  or  words  of  opposite 
meaning,  enclosed  in  parentheses,  will  also  be  found  extremely 
valuable,  for  one  of  the  strongest  figures  of  speech  is  antithesis^  or 
contrast : 

ABANDON,  leave,  forsake,  desert,  renounce,  relinquish,  quit,  forego,  let  go, 
waive.  (Keep,  cherish.)  Abandoned,  deserted,  forsaken,  wicked,  reprobate, 
dissolute,  profligate,  flagitious,  corrupt,  depraved,  vicious.  (Cared  for,  virtuous.) 
Abandonment,  leaving,  desertion,  dereliction,  renunciation,  defection. 
Abasement,  degradation,  fall,  degeneracy,  humiliation,  abjection,  debase- 
ment, servility.  (Honor.)  Abash,  bewilder,  disconcert,  discompose,  con- 
found, confuse,  shame.  (Embolden.)  Abbreviate,  shorten,  abridge,  condense, 
contract,  curtail,  reduce.  (Extend.)  Abdicate,  give  up,  resign,  renounce,  aban- 
don, forsake,  relinquish,  quit,  forego.  Abet,  help,  encourage,  instigate,  incite, 
stimulate,  aid,  assist.  (Resist.)  Abettor,  assi^ant,  accessory,  accomplice,  pro- 
moter, instigator,  particeps  criminis,  coadjutor,  associate,  companion,  co-operator. 
(Opponent.)  Abhor,  dislike  intensely,  view  with  horror,  hate,  detest,  abominate, 
loathe,  nauseate.  (Love.)  Ability,  ca^bility,  talent,  faculty,  capacity,  qualifi- 
cation, aptitude,  aptness,  expertness,  skill,  efficiency,  accomplishment,  attain- 
ment. (Incompetency.)  Abject,  grovelling,  low,  mean,  base,  ignoble,  worthless, 
dy?Gpicable,  vile,  servile,  contemptible.  (Noble.)  Abjure,  recant,  forswear,  dis- 
claim, recall,  revoke,  retract,  renounce.  (Maintain.)  Able,  strong,  powerful, 
muscular,  stalwart,  vigorous,  athletic,  robust,  brawny,  skillful,  adroit,  competent, 
efficient,  capable,  clever,  self-qualified,  telling,  fitted.  (Weak.)  Abode,  residence, 
habitation,  dwelling,  domicile,  home,  quarters,  lodging.  Abolish,  quash,  destroy, 
revoke,  abrogate,  annul,  cancel,  annihilate,  extinguish,  vitiate,  invalidate,  nullify. 
(Establish,  enforce.)  Abominable,  hateful,  detestable,  odious,  vile,  execrable. 
(Lovable.)  Abortive,  fruitless,  ineffectual,  idle,  inoperative,  vain,  futile.  (Effec- 
tual.,) About,  concerning,  regarding,  relative  to,  with  regard  to,  as  to,  respecting, 
with  respect  to,  referring  to,  around,  nearly,  approximately.  Abscond,  run  off, 
steal  away,  decamp,  bolt.  Absent,  a.,  inattentive,  abstracted,  not  attending  to, 
listless,  dreamy.  (Present.)  Absolute,  entire,  complete,  uncondition;d  unquali- 
fied, unrestricted,  despotic,  arbitrary,  tyrannous,  imperative,  authoritative,  imper- 
ious. (Limited.)  Absorb,  engross,  swallow  up,  engulf,  imbibe,  consume,  merge, 
fuse.  Absurd,  silly,  foolish,  preposterous,  ridiculous,  irrational,  unreasonable, 
nonsensical,  inconsistent.  (Wise,  solemn.)  Abuse,  v.,  asperse,  revile,  vilify,  re- 
proach, calumniate,  defame,  slander,  scandalize,  malign,  traduce,  disparage,  d^- 

44  . 


STNONTMS  AND  ANTONTMS, 


preciate,  ill-use.  (Praise,  protect.)  Abuse,  n.,  scurrility,  ribaldry,  contumely, 
obloquy,  opprobrium,  foul,  invective,  vituperation,  ill-usage.  (Praise,  protection.) 
Accede,  assent  to,  consent,  acquiesce,  comply  with,  agree,  coincide,  concur,  ap- 
prove. (Protest.)  Accelerate,  hasten,  hurry,  expedite,  forward,  quicken,  des- 
patch. (Retard.)  Accept,  receive,  take,  admit.  (Refuse.)  Acceptable,  agree- 
able, pleasing,  pleasurable,  gratifying,  welcome.  (Displeasing.)  Accident, 
casualty,  incident,  contingency,  adventure,  chance.  Accommodate,  serve, 
oblige,  adapt,  adjust,  fit,  suit.  (Disoblige,  impede.)  Accomplice,^  confederate, 
accessory,  abettor,  coadjutor,  assistant,  ally,  associate,  particeps  criminis.  (Ad- 
versary.) Accomplish,  do,  effect,  finish,  execute,  achieve,  complete,  perfect,  con- 
summate. (Fail.)  Accomplishment,  attainment,  qualification,  acquirement. 
(Defect.)  Accord,  grant,  allow,  admit,  concede.  (Deny.)  Accost,  salute,  ad- 
dress, speak  to,  stop,  greet.  Account,  narrative,  description,  narration,  relation, 
detail,  recital,  moneys,  reckoning,  bill,  charge.  Accountable,  punishable, 
answerable,  amenable,  responsible,  liable.  Accumulate,  bring  together,  amass, 
collect,  gather.  (Scatter,  dissipate.)  Accumulation,  collection,  store,  mass, 
congeries,  concentration.  Accurate,  correct,  exact,  precise,  pice,  truthful. 
(Erroneous,  careless.)  Achieve,  do,  accomplish,  effect,  fulfill,  execute,  gain,  win. 
Achievement,  feat,  exploit,  accomplishment,  attainment,  performance,  acquire- 
ment, gain.  (Failure.)  Acknowledge,  admit,  confess,  own,  avow,  grant,  recog- 
nize, allow,  concede.  (Deny.)  Acquaint,  inform,  enlighten,  apprise,  make 
aware,  make  known,  notify,  communicate.  (Deceive.)  Acquaintance,  famil- 
iarity, intimacy,  cognizance,  fellowship,  companionship,  knowledge.  (Unfamil- 
iarity.) Acquiesce,  agree,  accede,  assent,  comply,  consent,  give  way,  coincide 
with.  (Protest.)  Acquit,  pardon,  forgive,  discharge,  set  free,  clear,  absolve. 
((Condemn,  convict.)  Act,  do,  operate,  make,  perform,  play,  enact.  Action, 
deed,  achievement,  feat,  exploit,  accomplishment,  battle,  engagement,  agency, 
instrumentality.  Active,  lively,  sprightly,  alert,  agile,  nimble,  brisk,  quick,  sup- 
ple, prompt,  vigilant,  laborious,  industrious.  (Lazy,  passive.)  Actual,  real,  posi- 
tive, genuine,  certain.  (Fictitious.)  Acute,  shrewd,  intelligent,  penetrating, 
piercing,  keen.  (Dull.)  Adapt,  accommodate,  suit,  fit,  conform.  Addicted, 
devoted,  wedded,  attached,  given  up  to,  dedicated.  Addition,  increase,  accession, 
augmentation,  reinforcement.  (Subtraction,  separation.)  Address,  speech,  dis- 
course, appeal,  oration,  tact,  skill,  ability,  dexterity,  deportment,  demeanor.  Ad- 
hesion, adherence,  attachment,  fidelity,  devotion.  (Aloofness.)  Acyacent, 
near  to,  adjoining,  contiguous,  conterminous,  bordering,  neighboring.  (Distant.) 
Adjourn,  defer,  prorogue,  postpone,  delay.  Adjunct,  appendage,  appurtenance, 
appendency,  dependency.  Adjust,  set  right,  fit,  accommodate,  adapt,  arrange, 
settle,  regulate,  organize.  (Confuse.)  Admirable,  striking  surprising,  wonderful, 
astonishing.  (Detestable.)  Admit,  allow,  permit,  suffer,  tolerate.  (Deny.)  Ad- 
vantageous, beneficial.  (Hurtful.)  Affection,  love.  (Aversion.)  Affection- 
ate, fond,  kind.  (Harsh.)  Agreeable,  pleasant,  pleasing.  Charming.  (Disa- 
greeable.) Alternayng,  intermittent.  (Continual.)  Ambassador,  envoy, 
plenipotentiary,  minister.  Amend,  improve,  correct,  oetter,  mend.  (Impair.) 
Anger,  ire,  wrath,  indignation,  resentment.  (Good  nature.)  Appropriate, 
assume,  ascribe,  arrogate,  usurp.  Argue,  debate,  dispute,  reason  upon.  Arise, 
flow,  emanate,  spring,  proceed,  rise,  issue.  Artful,  disingenuous,  sly,  tricky,  in- 
sincere. (Candid.)  Artifice,  trick,  stratagem,  finesse.  Association,  combina- 
tion, company,  partnership,  society.  Attack,  assail,  assault,  encounter.  (Defend.' 
Audacity,  boldness,  effrontery,  hardihood.  (Meekness.)  Austere,  rigid,  rigor- 
ous, severe,  stern.  (Dissolute.)  Avaricious,  niggardly,  miserly,  parsimonious. 
(Generous.)  Aversion,  antipathy,  dislike,  hatred,  repugnance.  (Affection.) 
Awe,  dread,  fear,  reverence.  (Familiarity.)  Awkward,  clumsy.  (Graceful.) 
Axiom,  adage,  aphorism,  apothegm,  by-word,  maxim,  proverb,  saying,  saw. 

BABBLE,  chatter,  prattle,  prate.  Bad,  wicked,  evil.  (Good.)  Baffle,  confound, 
defeat,  disconcert.  (Aid,  abet.)  Base,  vile,  mean.  (Noble.)  Battle,  action, 
combat,  engagement.  Bear,  carry,  convey,  transport.  Bear,  endure,  suffer,  sup- 
port. Beastly,  brutal,  sensual,  bestial.  Beat,  defeat,  overpower,  overthrow, 
rout.  Beautiful,  fine,  handsome,  pretty.  (Homely,  ugly.)  Becoming,  decent, 
fit,  seemly,  suitable.  (Unbecoming.)  Beg,  beseech,  crave,  entreat,  implore,  solicit* 

45 


STNONTMS  AND  ANTONYMS. 

supplicate.  (Give.)  Behavior,  carriage,  conduct,  deportment,  demeanor.  Be- 
lief, credit,  faith,  trust.  (Doubt.)  Beneficient,  bountiful,  generous,  liberal, 
munificent.  (Covetous,  miserly.)  Benefit,  favor,  advantage,  kindness,  civility. 
(Injury.)  Benevolence,  beneficence,  benignity,  humanity,  kindness,  tender- 
ness. (Malevolence.)  Blame,  censure,  condemn,  reprove,  reproach,  upbraid. 
(Praise.)  Blemish,  flaw,  speck,  spot,  stain.  (Ornament.)  Blind,  sightless,  heed- 
less. 1 Far-sighted.)  Blot,  cancel,  efface,  expunge,  erase,  obliterate.  Bold, 
brave,  daring,  fearless,  intrepid,  undaunted.  (Timid.)  Border,  brim,  brink,  edge, 
margin,  rim,  verge,  boundary,  confine,  frontier.  Bound,  circumscribe,  confine, 
limit,  restrict.  Brave,  dare,  defy.  Bravery,  courage,  valor.  (Cowardice.) 
Break,  bruise,  crush,  pound,  squeeze.  Breeze,  blast,  gale,  gust,  hurricane, 
storm,  tempest.  Bright,  clear,  radiant,  shining.  (Dull.)  Brittle.  Burial,  in- 
terment, sepulture.  (Resurrection.)  Business,  avocation,  employment,  engage- 
ment, occupation,  art,  profession,  trade.  Bustle,  stir,  tumult,  fuss.  (Quiet.) 

CALAMITY,  disaster,  misfortune,  mischance,  mishap.  (Good  fortune.) 
Calm,  collected,  composed,  placid,  serene.  (Stormy,  unsettled)  Capa- 
ble, able,  competent.  (Incompetent.)  Captious,  fretful,  cross,  peevish, 
petulant.  (Good-natured.)  Care,  anxiety,  concern,  solicitude,  heed,  at- 
tention. (Heedlessness,  negligence.)  Caress,  kiss,  embrace.  (Spurn,  buf- 
fet ) Carnage,  butchery  massacre,  slaughter.  Cause,  motive,  reason.  (Ef- 
fect, consequence.)  Cease,  discontinue,  leave  off,  end.  (Continue.)  Cen- 
sure, animadvert,  criticise.  (Praise.)  Certain,  secure,  sure.  (Doubt- 
ful.) Cessation,  intermission,  rest,  stop.  (Continuance.)  Chance,  fate, 
fortune.  (Design)  Change,  barter,  exchange,  substitute.  Changeable,  fickle, 
inconstant,  mutable,  variable.  (Unchangeable  ) Character,  reputation,  repute, 
standing.  Charm,  captivate,  enchant,  enrapture,  fascinate.  Chastity,  purity, 
continence,  virtue.  (Lewdness.)  Cheap,  inexpensive,  inferior,  common.  (Dear.) 
Cheerful,  gay,  merry,  sprightly.  (Mournful.)  Chief,  chieftain,  head,  leader 
(Subordinate.)  Circumstance,  fact,  incident.  Class,  degree,  order,  rank. 
Clear,  bright,  lucid,  vivid.  (Opaque.)  Clever,  adroit,  dexterous,  expert,  skillful. 
(Stupid.)  Clothed,  clad,  dressed.  (Naked.)  Coarse,  rude,  rough,  unpolished. 
(Fine.)  Coax,  cajole,  fawn,  wheedle.  Cold,  cool,  frigid,  wintry,  unfeeling,  stoic- 
al. (Warm.)  Color,  dye,  stain,  tinge.  Colorable,  ostensible,  plausible, 
specious.  Combination,  cabal,  conspiracy,  plot.  Command,  injunction,  order, 
precept.  Commodity,  goods,  merchandise,  ware.  Common,  mean,  ordinary,, 
vulgar.  (Uncommon,  extraordinary)  Compassion,  sympathy,  pity,  clemency. 
(Cruelty,  severity.)  Compel,  force,  oblige,  necessitate.  (Coax,  lead.)  Compen- 
sation, amends,  recompense,  remuneration,  requital,  reward.  Compendium, 
compend,  abridgment.  (Enlargement)  Complain,  lament,  murmur,  regret,  re- 
pine. (Rejoice.)  Comply,  accede,  conform,  submit,  yield.  (Refuse.)  Com- 
pound, complex.  (Simple  ) Comprehend,  comprise,  include,  embrace,  grasp, 
understand,  perceive.  (Exclude,  mistake.)  Comprise,  comprehend,  contain,  em- 
brace, include.  Conceal,  hide,  secrete.  (Uncover.)  Conceive,  comprehend, 
understand.  Conclusion,  inference,  deduction.  Condemn,  censure,  blame, 
disapprove.  (Justify,  exonerate.)  Conduct,  direct,  guide,  lead,  govern,  regulate, 
manage.  Confirm,  corroborate,  approve,  attest.  (Contradict.)  Conflict,  com- 
bat, contest,  contention,  struggle.  (Peace,  quiet.)  Confute,  disprove,  refute,  op- 
pugn. (Approve.)  Conquer,  overcome,  subdue,  surmount,  vanquish.  (Defeat.). 
Consequence,  effect,  event,  issue,  result.  (Cause.)  Consider,  reflect,  ponder, 
weigh.  Consistent,  constant,  compatible.  (Inconsistent.)  Console,  comfort, 
solace.  (Harrow,  worry.)  Constancy,  firmness,  stability,  steadiness.  (Fickle- 
ness.) Contaminate,  corrupt,  defile,  pollute,  taint.  Contemn,  despise,  dis- 
dain, scorn.  (Esteem.)  Contemplate,  meditate,  muse.  Contemptible,  de- 
spicable, paltry,  pitiful,  vile,  mean.  (Noble.)  Contend,  contest,  dispute,  strive, 
struggle,  combat.  Continual,  constant,  continuous,  perpetual,  incessant.  (Inter- 
mittent. Continuance,  continuation,  duration.  (Cessation.)  Continue,  persist,, 
persevere,  pursue,  prosecute.  (Cease.)  Contradict,  deny,  gainsay,  oppose. 
(Confirm.)  Cool,  cold,  frigid.  (Hot.)  Correct,  rectify,  reform.  Cost,  charge, 
expense,  price.  Covetousness,  avarice,  cupidity.  (Beneficence.)  Cowardice, 
fear,  timidity,  pusillanimity.  (Courage.)  Crime,  sin,  vice,  misdemeanor.  (Vir-- 

40 


STNONTMS  AND  ANTONYMS, 


tue.)  Criminal,  convict,  culprit,  felon,  malefactor.  Crooked,  bent,  curved, 
oblique.  (Straight.)  Cruel,  barbarous,  brutal,  inhuman,  savage.  (Kind.)  Cul- 
tivation, culture,  refinement.  Cursory,  desultory,  hasty,  slight.  (Thorough.) 
Custom,  fashion,  manner,  practice. 

DANGER,  hazard,  peril.  (Safety.)  Dark,  dismal,  opaque,  obscure,  dim. 
(Light.)  Deadly,  fatal,  destructive,  mortal.  Dear,  beloved,  precious,  costly,  ex- 
pensive. (Despised,  cheap.)  Death,  departure,  decease,  demise.  (Life.)  Decay, 
decline,  consumption.  (Growth.)  Deceive,  delude,  impose  upon,  over-reach,  gull, 
dupe,  cheat.  Deceit,  cheat,  imposition,  trick,  delusion,  guile,  beguilement,  treach- 
ery, sham.  (Truthfulness.)  Decide,  determine,  settle,  adjudicate,  terminate,  re- 
solve. Decipher,  read,  spell,  interpret,  solve.  Decision,  determination,  con- 
clusion, resolution,  firmness.  (Vacillation.)  Declamation,  oratory,  elocution, 
harangue,  effusion,  debate.  Declaration,  avowal,  manifestation,  statement,  pro- 
fession. Decrease,  diminish,  lessen,  wane,  decline,  retrench,  curtail,  reduce. 
(Growth.)  Dedicate,  devote,  consecrate,  offer,  set,  apportion.  Deed,  act,  action, 
commission,  achievement,  instrument,  document,  muniment.  Deem,  judge,  esti- 
mate, consider,  think,  suppose,  conceive.  Deep,  profound,  subterranean,  sub- 
merged, designing,  abstruse,  learned.  (Shallow.)  Deface,  mar,  spoil,  injure,  dis- 
figure. ^Beautify.)  Default,  lapse,  forfeit,  omission,  absence,  want,  failure.  De- 
fect, imperfection,  flaw,  f^ault,  blemish.  (Beauty,  improvement ) Defend,  guard, 
protect,  justify.  Defense,  excuse,  plea,  vindication,  bulwark,  rampart.  Defer, 
delay,  postpone,  put  off,  prorogue,  adjourn.  (Force,  expedite.)  Deficient,  short, 
wanting,  inadequate,  scanty,  incomplete.  (Complete,  perfect ) Defile,  v.,  pollute, 
corrupt,  sully.  (Beautify.)  Define,  fix,  settle,  determine,  limit.  Defray,  meet, 
liquidate,  pay,  discharge.  Degree,  grade,  extent,  measure.  Deliberate,  v.,  con- 
sider, meditate,  consult,  ponder,  debate.  Deliberate,  a.,  purposed,  intentional, 
designed,  determined.  (Hasty.)  Delicacy,  nicety,  dainty,  refinement,  tact,  soft- 
ness, modesty.  (Boorishness,  indelicacy.)  Delicate,  tender,  fragile,  dainty,  re- 
fined. fCoarse.)  Delicious,  sweet,  palatable.  (Nauseous.  i Delight,  enjoy- 
ment, pleasure,  happiness,  transport,  ecstacy,  gladness,  rapture,  bliss.  (Annoy- 
ance.) Deliver,  liberate,  free,  rescue,  pronounce,  give,  hand  over.  (Retain.) 
Demonstrate,  prove,  show,  exhibit,  illustrate.  Depart,  leave,  quit,  decamp,  re- 
tire, withdraw,  vanish.  (Remain.)  Deprive,  strip,  bereave,  despoil,  rob,  divest. 
Depute,  appoint,  commission,  charge,  intrust,  delegate,  authorize,  accredit.  De- 
rision, scorn,  contempt,  contumely,  disrespect.  Derivation,  origin,  source,  be^ 
ginning,  cause,  etymology,  root.  Descr  ibe,  delineate,  portray,  explain,  illustrate, 
define,  picture.  Desecrate,  profane,  secularize,  misuse,  abuse,  pollute.  (Keep 
holy.)  Deserve,  merit,  earn,  justify,  win.  Design,  «.,  delineation,  sketch, 
drawing,  cunning,  artfulness,  contrivance.  Desirable,  expedient,  advisable,  val- 
uable, acceptable,  proper,  judicious,  beneficial,  profitable,  good.  Desire,  n., 
longing,  affection,  craving.  Desist,  cease,  stop,  discontinue,  drop,  abstain,  for- 
bare.  (Continue,  persevere.)  Desolate,  bereaved,  forlorn,  forsaken,  deserted, 
wild,  waste,  bare,  bleak,  lonely.  (Pleasant,  happy.)  Desperate,  wild,  daring, 
audacious,  determined,  reckless.  Despised.  Destiny,  fate,  decree,  doom,  end. 
Destructive,  detrimental,  hurtful,  noxious,  injurious,  deleterious,  baleful,  bane- 
ful, subversive.  (Creative,  constructive.)  Desuetude,  disuse,  discontinuance. 
(Maintenance.)  Desultory,  rambling,  discursive,  loose,  unmethodical,  superficial, 
unsettled,  erratic,  fitful.  (Thorough.)  Detail,  n.,  particular,  specification,  minu- 
tiae. Detail,  V.,  particularize,  enumerate,  specify.  (Generalize.)  Deter,  warn, 
stop,  dissuade,  terrify,  scare.  (Encourage.)  Detriment,  loss,  harm,  injury,  deter- 
ioration. (Benefit.)  Develop,  unfold,  amplify,  expand,  enlarge.  Device,  artifice, 
expedient,  contrivance.  Devoid,  void,  wanting,  destitute,  unendowed,  unprovided. 
(Full,  complete.)  Devoted,  attached,  fond,  absorbed,  dedicated.  Dictate, 
prompt,  suggest,  enjoin,  order,  command.  Dictatorial,  imperative,  imperious, 
domineering,  arbitrary,  tyrannical,  overbearing.  (Submissive.)  Die,  expire,  de- 
part, perish,  decline,  languish,  wane,  sick,  fade,  decay.  Diet,  food,  victuals, 
nourishment,  nutriment,  sustenance,  fare.  Difference,  separation,  disagreement, 
discord,  dissent,  estrangement,  variety.  Different,  various,  manifold,  diverse, 
unlike,  separate,  distinct.  (Similar,  homogeneous.)  Difficult,  hard,  intricate,  in- 
volved, perplexing,  obscure,  unmanageable.  (Easy.)  Diffuse,  discursive,  prolix, 

47 


STNONTMS  AND  ANTONTMS. 


diluted,  copious.  Dignify,  aggrandize,  elevate,  invest,  exalt,  advance,  promote, 
honor,  (Degrade.)  Dilate,  stretch,  widen,  expand,  swell,  distend,  enlarge,  descant, 
expatiate.  Dilatory,  tardy,  procrastinating,  behindhand,  lagging,  dawdling. 
(Prompt.)  Diligence,  care,  assiduity,  attention,  heed,  industry.  (Negligence.) 
Diminish,  lessen, reduce,  contract,  curtail,  retrench.  (Increase.)  Disability,  un- 
fitness, incapacity.  Discern,  descry,  observe,  recognize,  see,  discriminate,  separ- 
ate, perceive.  Discipline,  order,  strictness,  training,  coercion,  punishment, 
organization.  (Confusion,  demoralization.  Discover,  make  knov/n,  find,  invent, 
contrive,  expose,  reveal.  Discreditable,  shameful,  disgraceful,  scandalous,  dis- 
reputable. (Creditable.)  Discreet,  cautious,  prudent,  wary,  judicious.  (Indiscreet.) 
Discrepancy,  disagreement,  differencet  variance.  (Agreement.)  Discrimina- 
tion, acuteness,  discernment,  judgment,  caution.  Disease,  complaint,  malady,  dis- 
order, ailment,  sickness.  Disgrace,  «.,  disrepute,  reproach,  dishonor,  shame, 
odium.  (Honor.)  Disgrace,  y.,  debase,  degrade,  defame,  discredit.  (Exalt ) 
Disgust,  dislike,  distaste,  loathing,  abomination,  abhorrence.  (Admiration.)  Dis- 
honest, unjust,  fraudulent,  unfair,  deceitful,  cheating,  deceptive,  wrongful. 
(Honest.)  Dismay,  z^.,  terrify,  frighten,  scare,  daunt,  appall,  dishearten.  (En- 
courage.) Dismay,  «.,  terror,  dread,  fear,  fright.  (Assurance  ) Dismiss,  send 
off,  discharge,  discard,  banish.  (Retain.)  Dispel,  scatter,  drive  away,  disperse, 
dissipate.  (Collect.)  Display,  snow,  spread  out,  exhibit,  expose.  (Hide.)  Dis- 
pose, arrange,  place,  order,  give,  bestow.  Dispute,  Z'.,  argue,  contest,  contend, 
question,  impugn.  (Assent  ) Dispute,  ft.,  argument,  debate,  controversy,  quarrel, 
disagreement.  (Harmony.)  Dissent,  disagree,  differ,  vary.  (Assent)  Distinct, 
clear,  plain,  obvious,  different,  separate.  (Obscure,  indistinct.)  Distinguish, 
perceive,  discern,  mark  out,  divide,  discriminate.  Distinguished,  famous,  glor- 
ious, far-famed,  noted,  illustrious,  eminent,  celebrated.  (Obscure,  unknown,  ordin- 
ary.) Distract,  perplex,  bewilder.  (Calm,  concentrate.)  Distribute,  allot, 
share,  dispense,  apportion,  deal.  (Collect.)  Disturb,  derange,  discompose,  agi- 
tate, rouse,  interrupt,  confuse,  annoy,  trouble,  vex,  worry.  (Pacify,  quiet.)  Dis- 
use, discontinuance,  abolition,  desuetude.  (Use.)  Divide,  part,  separate,  dis- 
tribute, deal  out,  sever,  sunder.  Divine,  godlike,  holy,  heavenly,  sacred,  a par- 
son, clergyman,  minister.  Do,  effect,  make,  perform,  accomplish,  finished,  trans- 
act. Doci I,  tractable,  teachable,  compliant,  tame.  (Stubborn.)  Doctrine,  tenet, 
articles  of  belief,  creed,  dogma,  teaching.  Doleful,  dolorous,  woe-begone,  rueful, 
.dismal,  piteous.  (Joyous.)  Doom,  ».,  sentence,  verdict,  judgment,  fate,  lot,  des- 
tiny. Doubt,  uncertainty,  suspense,  hesitation,  scruple,  ambiguity,  (Cer- 
tainty.) Draw,  pull,  haul,  drag,  attract,  inhale,  sketch,  describe.  Dread,  «., 
fear,  horror,  terror,  alarm,  dismay,  awe.  (Boldness,  assurance.)  Dreadful,  fear- 
ful, frightful,  shocking,  awful,  horrible,  horrid,  terrific.  Dress,  «.,  clothing,  a’ 
tire,  apparel,  garments,  costume,  garb,  livery.  Drift,  purpose,  meaning,  scope, 
aim,  tendency,  direction.  Droll,  funny,  laughable,  comic,  whimsical,  • queer, 
amusing.  (Solemn.)  Drown,  inundate,  swamp,  submerge,  overwhelm,  engulf. 
Dry,  a.,  and,  parched,  lifeless,  dull,  tedious,  uninteresting,  meagre.  (Moist,  in- 
teresting, succulent.)  Due,  owing  to,  attributable  to,  just,  fair,  proper,  debt,  right. 
Dull,  stupid,  gloomy,  sad,  dismal,  commonplace.  (Bright.)  Dunce,  simpleton, 
fool,  ninny,  idiot.  (Sage.)  Durable,  lasting,  permanent,  abiding,  continuing. 
(Ephemeral,  perishable.)  Dwell,  stay,  stop,  abide,  sojourn,  linger,  tarry.  Dwin- 
dle, pine,  waste,  diminish,  decrease,  fall  off.  (Grow.) 

EAGER,  hot,  ardent,  impassioned,  forward,  impatient.  (Diffident.)  Earn,  ac- 
quire, obtain,  win,  gain,  achieve.  Earnest,  a.,  ardent,  serious,  grave,  solemn, 
warm.  (Trifling.)  Earnest,  pledge,  pawn.  Ease,  n.,  comfort,  rest.  (Worry.) 
Ease,  z/.,  calm,  alleviate,  allay,  mitigate,  appease,  assuage,  pacify,  disburden,  rid, 
(Annoy,  worry.)  Easy,  light,  comfortable,  unconstrained.  (Difficult,  hard.) 
Eccentric,  irregular,  anomalous,  singular,  odd,  abnormal,  wayward,  particular, 
strange.  (Regular,  ordinary.)  Economical,  sparing,  saving,  provident,  thrifty, 
frugal,  careful,  niggardly.  (Wasteful.)  Edge,  border,  brink,  rim,  brim,  margin, 
verge.  Efface,  blot  out,  expunge,  obliterate,  wipe  out,  cancel,  erase.  Effect,  ft., 
consequence,  result,  issue,  event,  execution,  operation.  Effect,  z/. , accomplish, 
fulfill,  realize,  achieve,  execute,  operate,  complete.  Effective,  efficient,  operative, 
serviceable.  (Vain,  ineffectual.)  Efficacy,  efficiency,  energy,  agency,  instrumen- 

48 


STNONrMS  AND  ANTONYMS. 


tality.  Efficient,  effectual,  effective,  competent,  capable,  able,  fitted.  Elimi- 
nate, drive  out,  expel,  thrust  out,  eject,  cast  out,  oust,  dislodge,  banish,  proscribe. 
Eloquence,  oratory,  rhetoric,  declamation.  Elucidate,  make  plain,  explain, 
clear  up,  illustrate.  Elude,  evade,  escape,  avoid,  shun.  Embarrass,  perplex, 
entangle,  distress,  trouble.  (Assist.)  Embellish,  adorn,  decorate,  bedeck, 
beautify,  deck.  (Disfigure.)  Embolden,  inspirit,  animate,  encourage,  cheer, 
urge,  impel,  stimulate.  (Discourage.)  Eminent,  distinguished,  signal,  conspicuous, 
noted,  prominent,  elevated,  renowned,  famous,  glorious,  illustrious.  (Obscure,  un- 
known.) Emit,  give  out,  throw  out,  exhale,  discharge,  vent.  Emotion,  perturba- 
tion, agitation,  trepidation,  tremor,  mental  conflict.  Employ,  occupy,  busy,  take 
<5p  with,  engross.  Employment,  business,  avocation,  engagement,  office,  function, 
trade,  profession,  occupation,  calling,  vocation.  Encompass,  v.,  encircle,  sur- 
round, gird,  beset.  Encounter,  attack,  conflict,  combat,  assault,  onset,  engage- 
ment, battle,  action.  Encourage,  countenance,  sanction,  support,  foster,  cherish, 
inspirit,  embolden,  animate,  cheer,  incite,  urge,  impel,  stimulate.  (Deter.)  End, 
n.,  aim,  object,  purpose,  result,  conclusion,  upshot,  close,  expiration,  termination, 
extremity,  sequel.  Endeavor,  attempt,  try,  essay,  strive,  aim.  Endurance, 
continuation,  duration,  fortitude,  patience,  resignation.  Endure,  v.,  last,  con- 
tinue, support,  bear,  sustain,  suffer,  brook,  submit  to,  undergo.  (Perish.)  Enemy, 
foe,  antagonist,  adversary,  opponent.  (Friend.)  Energetic,  industrious,  effec- 
tual, efficacious,  powerful,  binding,  stringent,  forcible,  nervous.  (Lazy.)  Engage, 
employ,  busy,  occupy,  attract,  invite,  allure,  entertain,  engross,  take  up,  enlist. 
Engross,  absorb,  take  up,  busy,  occupy,  engage,  monopolize.  Engulf,  swallow 
up,  absorb,  imbibe,  drown,  submerge,  bury,  entomb,  overwhelm.  Enjoin,  order, 
ordain,  appoint,  prescribe.  Enjoyment,  pleasure,  gratification.  (Grief,  sorrow, 
sadness.)  Enlarge,  increase,  extend,  augment,  broaden,  swell.  (Diminish.) 
Enlighten,  illumine,  illuminate,  instruct,  inform.  (Befog,  becloud.)  Enliven, 
cheer,  vivify,  stir  up,  animate,  inspire,  exhilarate.  (Sadden,  quiet.)  Enmity,  ani- 
mosity, hostility,  ill-will,  maliciousness.  (Friendship  ) Enormous,  gigantic,  co- 
lossal, huge,  vast,  immense,  prodigious.  (Insignificant.)  Enough,  sufficient, 
plenty,  abundance.  (Want.)  Enraged,  infuriated,  raging,  wrathful.  (Pacified.) 
Enrapture,  enchant,  fascinate,  charm,  captivate,  bewitch.  (Repel.)  Enroll,  en- 
list, list,  register,  record.  Enterprise,  undertaking,  endeavor,  venture,  energy. 
Enthusiasm,  earnest,  devotion,  zeal,  ardor.  (Ennui,  lukewarmness.)  Enthu- 
siast, fanatic,  visionary.  Equal,  equable,  even,  like,  alike,  uniform.  (Un- 
equal.) Eradicate,  root  out,  extirpate,  exterminate.  Erroneous,  incorrect, 
inaccurate,  inexact.  (Exact.)  Error,  blunder,  mistake.  (Truth.)  Especially, 
chiefly,  particularly,  principally.  (Generally.)  Essay,  dissertation,  tract,  treatise, 
■j.Establish,  build  up,  confirm.  (Overthrow.)  Esteem,  regard,  respect.  (Con- 
tempt.) Estimate,  appraise,  appreciate,  esteem,  compute,  rate.  Estrangement, 
abstraction,  alienation.  Eternal,  endless,  everlasting.  (Finite.)  Evade,  equivo- 
cate, prevaricate.  Even,  level,  plain,  smooth.  (Uneven.)  Event,  accident,  ad- 
venture, incident,  occurrence.  Evil,  ill,  harm,  mischiefi  misfortune.  (Good.) 
ExacL  nice,  particular,  punctual.  (Inexact ) Exalt,  ennoble,  dignify,  raise. 
(Humble.)  Examination,  investigation,  inquiry,  research,  search,  scrutiny.  Ex- 
ceed, excel,  outdo,  surpass,  transcend.  (Fall  Short.)  Exceptional,  uncommon, 
rare,  extraordinary.  (Common.)  Excite,  awaken,  provoke,  rouse,  stir  up.  (Lull.) 
Excursion,  jaunt,  ramble,  tour,  trip.  Execute,  fulfill,  perform.  Exempt,  free, 
cleared.  (Subject.)  Exercise,  practice.  Exhaustive,  thorough,  complete. 

(Cursory.)  Exigency,  emergency.  Experiment,  proof,  trial,  test.  Explain, 
expound,  interpret,  illustrate,  elucidate.  Express,  declare,  signify,  utter,  tell. 
Extend,  reach,  stretch.  (Abridge.)  Extravagant,  lavish,  profuse,  prodigal. 
(Parsimonious. ) 

FABLE,  apologue,  novel,  romance,  tale.  Face,  visage,  countenance.  Face- 
tious, pleasant,  jocular,  jocose.  (Serious.)  Factor,  agent.  Fail,  to  fall  short,  be 
deficient.  (Accomplish.)  Faint,  languid.  (Forcible.)  Fair,  clear.  (Stormy.) 
Fair,  equitable,  honest,  reasonable.  (Unfair.)  Faith,  creed.  (Unbelief,  infidelity.) 
Faithful,  true,  loyal,  constant.  (Faithless.)  Faithless,  perfidious,  treacherous, 
(Faithful.)  Fall,  drop,  droop,  sink,  tumble.  (Rise.)  Fame,  renown,  reputation. 
Famous,  celebrated,  renowned,  illustrious.  (Obscure.)  Fanciful,  capricious, 
fantastical,  whimsical.  Fancy,  imagination.  Fast,  rapid,  quick,  fleet,  expedi- 

49 


STNONTMS  AND  ANTONTMS. 


tious.  (Slow.)  Fatigue,  weariness,  lassitude.  (Vigor.)  Fear,  timidity,  timer-, 
ousness.  (Bravery.)  Feeling,  sensation,  sense.  Feeling,  sensibility,  suscepti- 
bility. (Insensibility.)  Ferocious,  fierce,  savage,  wild,  barbarous.  (Mild.) 
Fertile,  fruitful,  prolific,  plenteous,  productive.  (Sterile.)  Fiction,  falsehood, 
fabrication.  (Fact.)  Figure,  allegory,  emblem,  metaphor,  symbol,  type  Find, 
find  out,  descry,  discover,  espy.  (Lose,  overlook.)  Fine,  a*,  delicate,  nice. 
(Coarse.)  Fine,  forfeit,  forfeiture,  mulct,  penalty.  Fire,  glow,  heat,  warmth.  Firm, 
constant,  solid,  steadfast,  fixed,  stable.  (Weak.)  First,  foremost,  earliest.  (Last.) 
Fit,  accommodate,  adapt,  adjust,  suit.  Fix,  determine,  establish,  settle,  limit. 
Flame,  blaze,  flare,  flash,  glare.  Flat,  level,  even.  Flexible,  pliant,  pliable, 
ductile,  supple.  (Inflexible.)  Flourish,  prosper,  thrive.  (Decay.)  Fluctuating, 
wavering,  hesitating,  oscillating,  vacillating,  change.  (Firm,  steadfast,  decided.) 
Fluent,  flowing,  glib,  voluble,  unembarrassed,  ready.  (Hesitating.)  Folks,  per- 
sons, people,  individuals.  Follow,  succeed,  ensue,  imitate,  copy,  pursue.  Fol- 
lower, partisan,  disciple,  adherent,  retainer,  pursurer,  successor.  Folly,  silliness, 
foolishness,  imbecility,  weakness.  (Wisdom.)  Fond,  enamored,  attached,  affec-; 
tionate.  (Distant.)  Fondness,  affection,  attachment,  kindness,  love.  (Aversion.) 
Foolhardy,  venturesome,  incautious,  hasty,  adventurous,  rash.  (Cautious.)  Fool- 
ish, simple,  silly,  irrational,  brainless,  imbecile,  crazy,  absurd,  preposterous,  ridicu- 
lous, nonsensical.  (Wise,  discreet.)  Fop,  dandy,  dude,  beau,  coxcomb,  puppy, 
jackanapes.  (Gentlemen.)  Forbear,  abstain,  refrain,  withhold.  Force,  «., 
strength,  vigor,  dint,  might,  energy,  power,  violence,  army,  host.  Force,  v.,  com- 
pel. (Persuade.)  Forecast,  forethought,  foresight,  premeditation,  prognostica- 
tion. Forego,  quit,  relinquish,  let  go,  waive.  Foregoing,  antecedent,  anterior, 
preceding,  previous,  prior,  former.  Forerunner,  herald,  harbinger,  precursor, 
omen.  Foresight,  forethought,  forecast,  premeditation.  Forge,  coin,  invent, 
frame,  feign,  fabricate,  counterfeit.  Forgive,  pardon,  remit,  absolve,  acquit,  ex- 
cuse, except.  Forlorn,  forsaken,  abandoned,  deserted,  desolate,  lone,  lonesome. 
Form,  «.,  ceremony,  solemnity,  observance,  rite,  figure,  shape,  conformation, 
fashion,  appearance,  representation,  semblance.  Form,  z/.,  make,  create,  produce, 
constitute,  arrange,  fashion,  mould,  shape.  Formal,  ceremonious,  precise,  exact, 
stiff,  methodical,  affected.  (Informal,  natural.)  Former,  antecedent,  anterior, 
previous,  prior,  preceding,  foregoing.  Forsaken,  abandoned,  forlorn,  deserted, 
desolate,  lone,  lonesome.  Forthwith,  immediately,  directly,  instantly,  instantane- 
ously. (Anon.)  Fortitude,  endurance,  resolution,  fearlessness,  dauntlessness. 
(Weakness.)  Fortunate,  lucky,  happy,  auspicious,  prosperous,  successful.  (Un- 
fortunate.) Fortune,  chance,  fate,  luck,  doom,  destiny,  property,  possession, 
riches  Foster,  cherish,  nurse,  tend,  harbor,  nurture.  (Neglect.)  Foul,  im- 
pure, nasty,  filthy,  dirty,  unclean,  defiled.  (Pure,  clean.)  Fractious,  cross, 
captious,  petulant,  touchy,  testy,  peevish,  fretful,  splenetic.  (Tractable.)  Fragile, 
brittle,  frail,  delicate,  feeble.  (Strong.)  Fragments,  pieces,  scraps,  chips,  leav- 
ings, remains,  remnants.  Frailty,  weakness,  failing,  foible,  imperfection,  fault, 
blemish.  (Strength.)  Frame,  z'.,  construct,  invent,  coin,  fabricate,  forge,  mold, 
feign,  make,  compose.  Franchise,  right,  exemption,  immunity,  privilege,  free- 
dom, suffrage.  Frank,  artless,  candid,  sincere,  free,  easy,  familiar,  open,  ingenu- 
ous, plain.  (Tricky,  insincere.)  Frantic,  distracted,  mad,  furious,  raving,  frenzied. 
(Quiet,  subdued.)  Fraud,  deceit,  deception,  duplicity,  guile,  cheat,  imposition. 
(Honesty.)  Freak,  fancy,  humor,  vagary,  whim,  caprice,  crotchet.  (Purpose, 
resolution.)  Free,  a.,  liberal,  generous,  bountiful,  bounteous,  munificent,  frank, 
artless,  candid,  familiar,  open,  independent,  unconfined,  unreserved,  unrestricted, 
exempt,  clear,  loose,  easy,  careless.  (Slavish,  stingy,  artful,  costly.)  Free,  v., 
release,  set  free,  deliver,  rescue,  liberate,  enfranchise,  affranchise,  emancipate, 
exempt.  (Enslave,  bind.)  Freedom,  liberty,  independence,  unrestraint,  famili- 
arity, license,  franchise,  exemption,  privilege.  (Slavery.)  Frequent,  often,  com- 
mon, usual,  general.  (Rare.)  Fret,  gall,  chafe,  agitate,  irritate,  vex.  Friendly, 
amicable,  social,  sociable.  (Distant,  reserved,  cool.)  Frightful,  fearful,  dreadful, 
dire,  direful,  terrific,  awful,  horrible,  horrid.  Frivolous,  trifling,  trivial,  petty. 
(Serious,  earnest.)  Frugal,  provident,  economical,  saving.  (Wasteful,  extrava- 
gant.) Fruitful,  fertile,  prolific,  productive,  abundant,  plentiful,  plenteous.  (Bar- 
ren, sterile.)  Fruitless,  vain,  useless,  idle,  abortive,  bootless,  unavailing,  without 
avail.  Frustrate,  defeat,  foil,  balk,  disappoint.  Fulfill,  accomplish,  effect, 

50 


STNONTMS  AND  ANTONTMS. 


complete.  Fully,  completely,  abundantly,  perfectly.  Fulsome,  coarse,  gross, 
sickening,  offensive,  rank.  (Moderate.)  Furious,  violent,  boisterous,  vehement, 
dashing,  sweeping,  rolling,  impetuous,  frantic,  distracted,  stormy,  angry,  raging, 
fierce.  (Calm.)  Futile,  trifling,  trivial,  frivolous,  useless.  (Effective.) 

GAIN,  profit,  emolument,  advantage,  benefit,  winnings,  earnings.  (Loss.) 
Gain,  v.,  get,  acquire,  obtain,  attain,  procure,  earn,  win,  achieve,  reap,  realize, 
reach.  (Lose.)  Gallant,  brave,  bold,  courageous,  gay,  fine,  showy,  intrepid,  fear- 
less, heroic.  Galling,  chafing,  irritating,  vexing.  (Soothing.)  Game,  play, 
pastime,  diversion,  sport,  amusement.  Gang,  band,  horde,  company,  troop,  crew. 
Gap,  breach,  charm,  hollow,  cavity  cleft,  crevice,  rift,  chink.  Garnish,  embel- 
lish, adorn,  beautify,  deck,  decorate.  Gather,  pick,  cull,  assemble,  muster,  infer, 
collect.  (Scatter.)  Gaudy,  showy,  flashy,  tawdry,  gay,  glittering,  bespangled. 
(Sombre  ) Gaunt,  emaciated,  scraggy,  skinny,  meagre,  lank,  attenuated,  spare, 
lean,  thin.  (Well-fed.)  Gay,  cheerful,  merry,  lively,  jolly,  sprightly,  blithe. 
(Solemn  ) Generate,  form,  make,  beget,  produce.  Generation  formation,  race, 
breed,  stock,  kind,  age,  era.  Generous,  beneficent,  noble,  honorable,  bountiful. 
Liberal,  free.  (Niggardly.)  Genial,  cordial,  hearty,  festive,  joyous.  (Distant, 
cold.)  Genius,  intellect,  invention,  talent,  taste,  nature,  character,  adept.  Gen- 
Jeel,  refined,  polished,  fashionable,  polite,  well-bred.  (Boorish.)  Gentle,  placid, 
mild,  bland,  meek,  tame,  docile.  (Rough,  uncouth.)  Genuine,  real,  true,  un- 
affected, sincere.  (False.)  Gesture,  attitude,  action,  posture.  Get,  obtain,  earn, 
gain,  attain,  procure,  achieve.  Ghastly,  pallid,  wan,  hideous,  grim,  shocking. 
Ghost,  spectre,  sprite,  apparition,  shade,  phantom.  Gibe,  scoff,  sneer,  flout,  jeer, 
mock,  taunt,  deride.  Giddy,  unsteady,  flighty,  thoughtless.  (Steady.)  Gift, 
donation,  benefaction,  grant,  alms,  gratuity,  boon,  present,  faculty,  talent.  (Pur- 
chase.) Gigantic,  colossal,  huge,  enormous,  vast,  prodigious,  immense.  (Diminu- 
tive.) Give,  grant,  bestow,  confer,  yield,  impart.  Glad,  pleased,  cheerful,  joyful, 
gladsome,  gratified,  cheering.  (Sad.)  Gleam,  glimmer,  glance,  glitter,  shine, 
flash.  Glee,  gayety,  merriment,  mirth,  jovialty,  jovialness,  catch.  (Sorrow.) 
Glide,  slip,  slide,  run,  roll  on.  Glimmer,  v.,  gleam,  flicker,  glitter.  Glimpse, 
glance,  look,  glint.  Glitter,  gleam,  shine,  glisten,  glister,  radiate.  Gloom,  cloud, 
darkness,  dimness,  blackness,  dulness,  sadness.  (Light,  brightness,  joy.)  Gloomy, 
lowering,  lurid,  dim,  dusky,  sad,  glum.  (Bright,  clear.)  Glorify,  magnify,  cele- 
brate, adore,  exalt.  Glorious,  famous,  renowned,  distinguished,  noble,  exalted. 
(Infamous.)  Glory,  honor,  fame,  renown,  splendor,  grandeur.  (Infamy.)  Glut, 
gorge,  stuff,  cram,  cloy,  satiate,  block  up.  Go,  depart,  proceed,  move,  budge,  stir. 
God,  creator,  lord,  almighty,  jehovah,  omnipotence,  providence.  Godly,  right- 
eous, devout,  holy,  pious,  religious.  Good,  benefit,  weal,  advantage,  profit,  boon. 
(Evil.)  Good,  a.,  virtuous,  righteous,  upright,  just,  true.  (Wicked,  bad.)  Gorge, 
glut,  fill,  cram,  stuff,  satiate.  Gorg**ous,  superb,  grand,  magnificent,  splendid. 
(Plain,  simple.)  Govern,  rule,  direct,  manage,  command.  Government,  rule, 
state,  control,  sway.  Graceful,  becoming,  comely,  elegant,  beautiful.  (Awk- 
ward.) Gracious,  merciful,  kindly,  beneficent.  Gradual,  slow,  progressive. 
(Sudden.)  Grand,  majestic,  stately,  dignified,  lofty,  elevated,  exalted,  splendid, 
gorgeous,  superb,  magnificent,  sublime,  pompous.  (Shabby.)  Grant,  bestow,  im- 
part, give,  yield,  cede,  allow,  confer,  invest.  Grant,  gift,  boon,  donation.  Graph- 
ic, forcible,  telling,  picturesque,  vivid,  pictorial.  Grasp,  catch,  seize,  gripe, 
clasp,  grapple.  Grateful,  agreeable,  pleasing,  welcome,  thankful.  (Harsh.) 
Gratification,  enjoyment,  pleasure,  delight,  reward.  (Disappointment.)  Grave, 
a.,  serious,  sedate,  solemn,  sober,  pressing,  heavy.  (Giddy.)  Grave,  s.,  tomb, 
sepulchre,  vault.  Great,  big,  huge,  large,  majestic,  vast,  grand,  noble,  august. 
(Small.)  Greediness,  avidity,  eagerness,  voracity.  (Generosity.)  Grief,  afflic- 
tion, sorrow,  trial,  woe,  tribulatio®.  (Joy.)  Grieve,  mourn,  lament,  sorrow,  pain, 
hurt,  wound,  bewail.  (Rejoice.)  Grievous,  painful,  afflicting,  heavy,  baleful, 
unhappy.  Grind,  crush,  oppress,  grate,  harass,  afflict.  Grisly,  terrible,  hideous, 
grim,  ghastly,  dreadful.  (Pleasing.)  Gross,  coarse,  outrageous,  unseemly, 
shameful,  indelicate.  (Delicate.)  Group,  assembly,  cluster,  collection,  clump, 
order,  class.  Grovel,  crawl,  cringe,  fawn,  sneak.  Grow,  increase,  vegetate,  ex- 
pand, advance.  (Decay,  diminution.)  Growl,  grumble,  snarl,  murmur,  complain. 
Grudge,  malice,  rancor,  spite,  pique,  hatred,  aversion.  Gruff,  rough,  rugged, 

51 


SrNONTMS  AND  ANTONYMS. 

blunt,  rude,  harsh,  surly,  bearish.  (Pleasant.)  Guile,  deceit,  fraud.  (Candor.) 
Guiltless,  harmless,  innocent.  Guilty,  culpable,  sinful,  criminal. 

HABIT,  custom,  practice.  Hail,  accost,  address,  greet,  salute,  welcome.  Hap- 
piness, beatitude,  blessedness,  bliss,  felicity.  (Unhappiness.)  Harbor,  haven, 
port.  Hard,  firm,  solid.  (Soft.)  Hard,  arduous,  difficult.  (Easy.)  Harm,  in- 
jury, hurt,  wrong,  infliction.  (Benefit.)  Harmless,  safe,  innocuous,  innocent. 
(Hurtful.)  Harsh,  rough,  rigorous,  severe,  gruff,  morose.  (Gentle.)  Hasten, 
accelerate,  despatch,  expedite,  speed.  (Delay.)  Hasty,  hurried,  ill-advised. 
(Deliberate.)  Hateful,  odious,  detestable.  (Lovable.)  Hatred,  enmity,  ill-will, 
rancor.  (Friendship.)  Haughtiness,  arrogance,  pride.  (Modesty.)  Haughty, 
arrogant,  disdainful,  supercilious,  proud.  Hazard,  risk,  venture.  Healthy, 
salubrious,  salutary,  wholesome.  (Unhealthy.)  Heap,  accumulate,  amass,  pile. 
Hearty,  a.,  cordial,  sincere,  warm.  (Insincere.)  Heavy,  burdensome,  ponderous, 
weighty.  (Light.)  Heed,  care,  attention.  Heighten,  enhance,  exalt,  elevate, 
raise.  Heinous,  atrocious,  flagitious,  flagrant.  (Venial.)  Help,  aid,  assist,  re- 
lieve, succor.  (Hinder.)  Heretic,  sectary,  sectarian,  schismatic,  dissenter,  non- 
conformist. Hesitate,  falter,  stammer,  stutter.  Hideous,  grim,  ghastly,  grisly. 
(Beautiful.)  High,  lofty,  tall,  elevated.  (Deep.)  Hinder,  impede,  obstruct,  pre- 
vent. (Help.)  Hint,  allude,  refer,  suggest,  intimate,  insinuate.  Hold,  detain, 
keep,  retain.  Holiness,  sanctity,  piety,  sacredness.  Holy,  devout,  pious,  religious. 
Homely,  plain,  ugly,  coarse.  (Beautiful.)  Honesty,  integrity,  probity,  upright- 
ness. (Dishonesty.)  Honor,  z/.,  respect,  reverence,  esteem.  (Dishonor.)  Hope, 
confidence,  expectation,  trust.  Hopeless,  desperate.  Hot,  ardent,  burning,  fiery. 
(Cold.)  However,  nevertheless,  notwithstanding,  yet.  Humble,  modest,  sub- 
missive, plain,  unostentatious,  simple.  (Haughty.)  Humble,  degrade,  humiliate, 
mortify,  abase.  (Exalt.)  Humor,  mood,  temper.  Hunt,  seek,  chase.  Hurtful, 
noxious,  pernicious.  (Beneficial.)  Husbandry,  cultivation,  tillage.  Hypocrite, 
dissembler,  impostor,  canter.  Hypothesis,  theory,  supposition. 

IDEA,  thought,  imagination,  ideal,  imaginary,  fancied.  (Actual.)  Idle,  in- 
dolent, lazy.  (Industrious.)  Ignominious,  shameful,  scandalous,  infamous. 
^Honorable.)  Ignominy, shame,  disgrace,  obloquy,  infamy,  reproach.  Ignorant, 
unlearned,  illiterate,  uninformed,  uneducated.  (Knowing.)  Ill,  n.,  evil,  wicked- 
ness, misfortune,  mischief,  harm.  (Good.)  Ill,  a.,  sick,  indisposed,  unwell,  dis- 
eased. (Well.)  Ill-tempered,  crabbed,  sour,  surly,  acrimonious.  (Good- 
natured.)  Ill-will,  enmity,  hatred,  antipathy.  (Good-will.)  Illegal,  unlawful, 
illicit,  contraband,  illegitimate.  (Legal.)  Illimitable,  boundless,  immeasurable, 
unlimited,  infinite.  Illiterate,  unlettered,  unlearned,  untaught,  uninstructed. 
(Learned,  educated.)  Illusion,  fallacy,  deception,  phantasm.  Illusory,  imagin- 
ary, chimerical,  visionary.  (Real.)  Illustrate,  explain,  elucidate,  clear.  Illus- 
trious, celebrated,  noble,  eminent,  famous,  renowned.  (Obscure.)  Image, 
likeness,  picture,  representation,  effigy.  Imaginary,  ideal,  fanciful,  illusory. 
(Real.)  Imagine,  conceive,  fancy,  apprehend,  think,  presume.  Imbecility,  silli- 
ness, senility,  dotage.  Imitate,  copy,  ape,  mimic,  mock,  counterfeit.  Im- 
maculate, unspotted',  spotless,  unsullied,  stainless.  (Soiled.)  Immediate, 
pressing,  instant,  next,  proximate.  Immediately,  instantly,  forthwith,  directly, 
presently.  Immense,  vast,  enormous,  huge,  prodigious,  monstrous.  Immunity, 
privilege,  prerogative,  exemption.  Impair,  injure,  diminish,  decrease.  Impart, 
reveal,  divulge,  disclose,  discover,  bestow,  afford.  Impartial,  just,  equitable,  un- 
biased. (Partial.)  Impassioned,  glowing,  burning,  fiery,  vehement,  intense. 
Impeach,  accuse,  charge,  arraign,  censure.  Impede,  hinder,  retard,  obstruct, 
prevent.  (Help.)  Impediment,  obstruction,  hindrance,  obstacle,  barrier.  (Aid.) 
Impel,  animate,  induce,  incite,  instigate,  embolden.  (Retard.)  Impending, 
imminent,  threatening.  Imperative,  commanding,  authoritative,  despotic.  Im- 
perfection, fault,  blemish,  defect,  vice.  Imperil,  endanger,  hazard,  jeopardize. 
Imperious,  commanding,  dictatorial,  authoritative,  imperative,  lordly,  overbear- 
ing, domineering.  Impertinent,  intrusive,  meddling,  officious,  rude,  saucy,  im- 
pudent, insolent.  Impetuous,  violent,  boisterous,  furious,  vehement.  (Calm.) 
impious,  profane,  irreligious,  godless.  (Reverent.)  Implicate,  involve,  en- 
tangle, embarrass,  compromise.  Imply,  involve,  comprise,  infold,  import,  denote, 
%ignify.  Importance,  signification,  significance,  avail,  consequence,  weight, 

52 


STNONTiMS  AND  ANTONYMS. 


gravity,  moment,  imposing,  impressive,  striking,  majestic,  august,  noble,  grand. 
(Insignificant.)  Impotence,  weakness,  incapacity,  infirmity,  frailty,  feebleness. 
(Power.)  Impotent,  weak,  feeble,  helpless,  enfeebled,  nerveless,  infirm.  (Strong.) 
Impressive,  stirring,  forcible,  exciting,  affecting,  moving.  Imprison,  incarcer- 
ate, shut  up,  immure,  confine.  (Liberate.)  Imprisonment,  captivity,  durance. 
Improve,  amend,  better,  mend,  reform,  rectify,  ameliorate,  apply,  use,  employ. 
(Deteriorate.)  Improvident,  careless,  incautious,  imprudent,  prodigal,  wasteful, 
reckless,  rash.  (Thrifty.)  Impudence,  assurance,  impertinence,  confidence,  in- 
solence, rudeness.  Impudent,  saucy,  brazen,  bold,  impertinent,  forward,  rude, 
insolent,  immodest,  shameless.  Impulse,  incentive,  incitement,  motive,  instiga- 
tion. Impulsive,  rash,  hasty,  forcible,  violent.  (Deliberate.)  Imputation, 
blame,  censure,  reproach,  charge,  accusation.  Inadvertency,  error,  oversight, 
blunder,  inattention,  carelessness,  negligence.  Incentive,  motive,  inducement, 
impulse.  Incite,  instigate,  excite,  provoke,  stimulate,  encourage,  urge,  impel. 
Inclination,  leaning,  slope,  disposition,  tendency,  bent,  bias,  affection,  attachment, 
wish,  liking,  desire.  (Aversion.)  Incline,  v.,  slope,  lean,  slant,  tend,  bend,  turn, 
bias,  dispose.  Inclose,  surround,  shut  in,  fence  in,  cover,  wrap.  Include,  com- 
prehend, comprise,  contain,  embrace,  take  in.  Incommode,  annoy,  plague, 
molest,  disturb,  inconvenience,  trouble.  (Accomodate.)  Incompetent,  incapa- 
ble, unable,  inadequate,  insufficient,  (Competent.)  Increase,  v.,  extend,  en- 
large, augment,  dilate,  expand,  amplify,  raise,  enhance,  aggravate,  magnify,  grow. 
(Diminish.)  Increase,  augmentation,  accession,  addition,  enlargement,  exten- 
sion. (Decrease.)  Incumbent,  obligatory.  Indefinite,  vague,  uncertain,  un- 
settled, loose,  lax.  (Definite.)  Indicate,  point  out,  show,  mark.  Indifference, 
apathy,  carelessness,  listlessness,  insensibility.  (Application,  assiduity.)  Indi- 
gence, want,  neediness,  penury,  poverty,  destitution,  privation.  (Affluence.)  In- 
dignation, anger,  wrath,  ire,  resentment.  Indignity,  insult,  affront,  outrage, 
obloquy,  opprobrium,  reproach,  ignominy.  (Honor.)  Indiscriminate,  promis- 
cuous, chance,  indistinct,  conffised.  (Select,  chosen.)  Indispensable,  essential, 
necessary,  requisite,  expedient.  (Unnecessary,  supernumerary.)  Indisputable, 
undeniable,  undoubted,  incontestable,  indubitable,  unquestionable,  sure,  infallible. 
Indorse,  ratify,  confirm,  superscribe.  Indulge,  foster,  cherish,  fondle.  (Deny.) 
Ineffectual,  vain,  useless,  unavailing,  fruitless,  abortive,  inoperative.  (Effective.) 
Inequality,  disparity,  disproportion,  dissimilarity,  unevenness.  (Equality.)  In- 
evitable, unavoidable,  not  to  be  avoided,  certain.  Infamous,  scandalous,  shame- 
ful, ignominious,  opprobrius,  disgraceful.  (Honorable.)  Inference,  deduction, 
corollary,  conclusion,  consequence.  Infernal,  diabolical,  fiendish,  devilish,  hellish. 
Infest,  annoy,  plague,  harass,  disturb.  Infirm,  weak,  feeble,  enfeebled.  (Robust.) 
Inflame,  anger,  irritate,  enrage, chafe,  incense,  nettle,  aggravate,  imbitter,  exas- 
perate. (Allay,  soothe.)  Influence,  v.,  bias,  sway,  prejudice,  prepossess.  Influ- 
ence, n.t  credit,  favor,  reputation,  character,  weight,  authority,  sway,  ascendency. 
Infringe,  invade,  intrude,  contravene,  break,  transgress,  violate.  Ingenuous, 
artless,  candid,  generous,  open,  frank,  plain,  sincere.  (Crafty.)  Inhuman,  cruel, 
brutal,  savage,  barbarous,  ruthless,  merciless,  ferocious.  (Humane  ) Iniquity, 
injustice,  wrong,  grievance.  Injure,  damage,  hurt,  deteriorate,  wrong,  aggrieve, 
harm,  spoil,  mar,  sully.  (Benefit.)  Injurious,  hurtful,  baneful,  pernicious,  dele- 
terious, noxious,  prejudicial,  wrongful,  damaging.  (Beneficial.)  Injustice,  wrong, 
iniquity,  grievance.  (Right.)  Innocent,  guiltless,  sinless,  harmless,  inoffensive, 
innoxious.  (Guilty.)  Innocuous,  harmless,  safe,  innocent.  (Hurtful.)  Inordi- 
nate, intemperate,  irregular,  disorderly,  excessive,  immoderate.  (Moderate.)  In- 
quiry, investigation,  examination,  research,  scrutiny,  disquisition,  question,  query, 
interrogation.  Inquisitive,  prying,  peeping,  curious,  peering.  Insane,  mad, 
deranged,  delirious,  demented.  (Sane.)  Insanity,  madness,  mental  aberration, 
lunacy,  delirium.  ^ (Sanity.)  insinuate,  hint,  intimate,  suggest,  infuse,  introduce, 
ingratiate.  Insipid,  dull,  flat,  mawki^,  tasteless,  vapid,  inanimate,  lifeless. 
(Bright,  sparkling.)  Insolent,  rude,  saucy,  pert,  impertinent,  abusive,  scurrilous, 
opprobrious,  insulting,  offensive.  Inspire,  animate,  exhilarate,  enliven,  cheer, 
breathe,  inhale.  Instability,  mutability,  fickleness,  mutableness,  wavering. 
(Stability,  firmness.)  Instigate,  stir  up,  persuade,  animate,  incite,  urge, stimulate, 
encourage.  Instil,  implant,  inculcate,  infuse,  insinuate.  Instruct,  inform, 
teach,  educate,  enlighten,  initiate.  Instrumental,  conducive,  assistant,  helping, 

53 


STNONTMS  AND  ANTONTMS, 


ministerial.  Insufficiency,  inadequacy,  incompetency,  incapability,  deficiency, 
lack.  Insult,  affront,  outrage,  indignity,  blasphemy.  (Honor.)  Insulting,  in- 
solent, rude,  saucy,  impertinent,  impudent,  abusive.  Integrity,  uprightness,  hon- 
esty, probity,  entirety,  entireness,  completeness,  rectitude,  purity.  (Dishonesty.) 
Intellect,  understanding,  sense,  brains,  mind,  intelligence,  ability,  talent,  genius. 
(Body.)  Intellectual,  mental,  ideal,  metaphysical.  (Brutal.)  Intelligible, 
clear,  obvious,  plain,  distinct.  (Abstruse.)  Intemperate,  immoderate,  excessive, 
drunken,  nimious,  inordinate.  (Temperate.)  Intense,  ardent,  earnest,  glowing, 
fervid,  burning,  vehement.  Intent,  design,  purpose,  intention,  drift,  view,  aim, 
purport,  meaning.  Intercourse,  commerce,  connection,  intimacy,  acquaintance, 
interdict,  forbid,  prohibit,  inhibit,  proscribe,  debar,  restrain  from.  (Allow.)  In- 
terfere, meddle,  intermeddle,  interpose.  Interminable,  endless,  interminate, 
infinite,  unlimited,  illimitable,  boundless,  limitless.  (Brief,  concise.)  interpose, 
intercede,  arbitrate,  mediate,  interfere,  meddle.  Interpret,  explain,  expound, 
elucidate,  unfold,  decipher.  Intimate,  hint,  suggest,  insinuate,  express,  signify, 
impart,  tell.  Intimidate,  dishearten,  alarm,  frighten,  scare,  appal,  daunt,  cow, 
browbeat.  (Encourage.)  Intolerable,  insufferable,  unbearable,  insupportable, 
unendurable.  Intrepid,  bold,  brave,  daring,  fearless,  dauntless,  undaunted, 
courageous,  valorous,  valiant,  heroic,  gallant,  chivalrous,  doughty.  (Cowardly, 
faint-hearted.)  Intrigue,  plot,  cabal,  conspiracy,  combination,  artifice,  ruse, 
amour.  Intrinsic,  real,  true,  genuine,  sterling,  native,  natural.  (Extrinsic.)  In- 
validate, quash,  cancel,  overthrow,  vacate,  nullify,  annul.  Invasion,  incursion, 
irruption,  inroad,  aggression,  raid,  fray.  Invective,  abuse,  reproach,  railing,  cen- 
sure, sarcasm,  satire.  Invent,  devise,  contrive,  frame,  find  out,  discover,  design. 
Investigation,  examination,  search,  inquiry,  research,  scrutiny.  Inveterate, 
confirmed,  chronic,  malignant.  (Inchoate.)  invidious,  envious,  hateful,  odious, 
malignant.  Invigorate,  brace,  harden,  nerve,  strengthen,  fortify.  (Enervate.) 
invincible,  unconquerable,  impregnable,  insurmountable.  Invisible,  unseen, 
imperceptible,  impalpable,  unperceivable.  Invite,  ask,  call,  bid,  request,  allure, 
attract,  solicit.  Invoke,  invocate,  call  upon,  appeal,  refer,  implore,  beseech.  In- 
volve, implicate,  entangle,  compromise,  envelop.  Irksome,  wearisome,  tiresome, 
tedious,  annoying.  (Pleasant.)  Irony,  sarcasm,  satire,  ridicule,  raillery.  Irra- 
tional, foolish,  silly,  imbecile,  brutish,  absurd,  ridiculous.  (Rational.)  Irregu- 
lar, eccentric,  anomalous,  inordinate,  intemperate.  (Regular.)  Irreligious, 
profane,  godless,  impious,  sacrilegious,  desecrating.  Irreproachable,  blameless, 
spotless,  irreprovable.  Irresistible,  resistless,  irrepressible.  Irresolute,  waver- 
ing undetermined,  undecided,  vacillating.  (Determined.)  Irritable,  excitable, 
irascible,  susceptible,  sensitive.  (Calm.)  Irritate,  aggravate,  worry,  embitter, 
madden,  exasperate,  issue,  r.,  emerge,  rise,  proceed,  flow,  spring,  emanate. 
Issue,  «.,  end,  upshot,  effect,  result,  offspring,  progeny. 

JADE,  harass,  weary,  tire,  worry.  Jangle,  wrangle,  conflict,  disagree.  Jar- 
ring, conflicting,  discordant,  inconsonant,  inconsistent.  Jaunt,  ramble,  excur- 
sion, trip.  Jealousy,  suspicion,  envy.  Jeopard,  hazard,  peril,  endanger. 
Jest,  joke,  sport,  divert,  make  game  of.  Journey,  travel,  tour,  passage.  Joy, 
gladness,  mirth,  delight.  (Grief.)  Judge,  justice,  referee,  arbitrator.  Joyful, 
glad,  rejoicing,  exultant.  (Mournful.)  Judgment,  discernment,  discrimination, 
understanding.  Justice,  equity,  right.  Justice  is  right  as  established  bylaw; 
equity  according  to  the  circumstances  of  each  particular  case.  (Injustice.)  Just- 
ness, accuracy,  correctness,  precision. 

KEEP,  preserve,  save.  (Abandon.)  Kill,  assassinate,  murder,  slay.  Kindred, 
affinity,  consanguinity,  relationship.  Knowledge,  erudition,  learning,  science. 
(Ignorance.) 

LABOR,  toil,  work,  effort,  drudgery.  (Idleness.)  Lack,  need,  deficiency, 
scarcity,  insufficiency.  (Plenty.)  Lament,  mourn,  grieve,  weep.  .(Rejoice.) 
Language,  dialect,  idiom,  speech,  tongue.  Lascivious,  loose,  unchaste,  lustful, 
lewd,  lecherous.  (Chaste.)  ’Last,  final,  latest,  ultimate.  (First.)  Laudable, 
commendable,  praiseworthy.  (Blamable.)  Laughable,  comical,  droll,  ludicrous. 
(Serious.)  Lawful,  legal,  legitimate,  licit.  (Illegal  ) Lead,  conduct,  guide. 
(Follow.)  Lean,  meagre.  (Fat.)  Learned,  erudite,  scholarly.  (Ignorant.) 
Leave,  z/.,  quit,  relinquish.  Leave,  «.,  liberty,  permission,  licenc^.  (Prohibition.) 

54 


STNONTMS  AND  ANTONTHS. 


Life,  existence,  animation,  spirit,  vivacity.  (Death.)  Lifeless,  dead,  inanimate. 
Lift,  erect,  elevate,  exalt,  raise.  (Lower.)  Light,  clear,  bright.  (Dark.)  Light- 
ness, flightiness,  giddiness,  levity,  volatility.  (Seriousness.)  Likeness,  resem- 
blance, similarity.  (Unlikeness.)  Linger,  lag,  loiter,  tarry,  saunter.  (Hasten.) 
Little,  diminutive,  small.  (Great.)  Livelihood,  living,  maintenance,  subsistence, 
support.  Lively,  jocund,  merry,  sportive,  sprightly,  vivacious.  (Slow,  languid, 
sluggish.)  Long,  extended,  extensive.  (Short.)  Look,  appear,  seem.  Lose, 
miss,  forfeit.  (Gain.)  Loss,  detriment,  damage,  deprivation.  (Gain.)  Loud, 
clamorous,  high-sounding,  noisy.  (Low,  quiet.)  Love,  affection,  (Hatred.)  Low, 
abject,  mean.  (Noble.)  Lunacy,  derangement,  insanity,  mania,  madness, 
(Sanity.)  Lustre,  brightness,  brilliancy,  splendor.  Luxuriant,  exuberant. 
(Sparse.) 

MACHINATION,  plot,  intrigue,  cabal,  conspiracy.  (Artlessness.)  Mad, 
crazy,  delirious,  insane,  rabid,  violent,  frantic.  (Sane,  rational,  quiet.)  Madness, 
insanity,  fury,  rage,  frenzy.  Magisterial,  august,  dignified,  majestic,  pompous, 
stately.  Make,  form,  create,  produce.  (Destroy.)  Malediction,  anathema, 
curse,  imprecation,  execration.  Malevolent,  malicious,  virulent,  malignant. 
(Benevolent.)  Malice,  spite,  rancor,  ill-feeling,  grudge,  animosity,  • ill-will. 
(Benignity.)  Malicious,  see  malevolent.  Manacle,  v.,  shackle,  fetter,  chain. 
(Free.)  Manage,  contrive,  concert,  direct.  Management,  direction,  superin- 
tendence, care,  economy.  Mangle,  tear,  lacerate,  mutilate,  cripple,  maim. 
Mania,  madness,  insanity,  lunacy.  Manifest,  v.,  reveal,  prove,  evince,  exhibit, 
display,  show.  Manifest,  a.,  clear,  plain,  evident,  open,  apparent,  visible. 
(Hidden,  occult.)  Manifold,  several,  sundry,  various,  divers,  numerous.  Manly, 
masculine,  vigorous,  courageous,  brave,  heroic.  (Effeminate.)  Manner,  habit, 
custom,  way,  air,  look,  appearance.  Manners,  morals,  habits,  behavior,  carriage. 
Mar,  spoil,  ruin,  disfigure.  (Improve.)  March,  tramp,  tread,  walk,  step,  space. 
Margin,  edge,  rim,  border,  brink,  verge.  Mark,  «.,  sign,  note,  symptom,  token, 
indication,  trace,  vestige,  track,  badge,  brand.  Mark,  v.,  impress,  print,  stamp, 
engrave,  note,  designate.  Marriage,  wedding,  nuptials,  matrimony,  wedlock. 
Martial,  military,  warlike,  soldier-like.  Marvel,  wonder,  miracle,  prodigy. 
Marvelous,  wondrous,  wonderful,  amazing,  miraculous.  Massive,  bulky,  heavy, 
weighty,  ponderous,  solid,  substantial.  (Flimsy.)  Mastery,  dominion,  rule,  sway, 
ascendancy,  supremacy.  Matchless,  unrivaled,  unequaled,  unparalleled,  peer-, 
less,  incomparable,  inimitable,  surpassing.  (Common,  ordinary.)  Material,  a.y 
corporeal,  bodily,  physical,  temporal,  momentous,  important.  (Spiritual,  imma-. 
terial.)  Maxim,  adage,  apophthegm,  proverb,  saying,  by-word,  saw.  Meager, 
poor,  lank,  emaciated,  Ijarren,  dry,  uninteresting.  (Rich.)  Mean,  a.,  stingy, 
niggardly,  low,  abject,  vile,  ignoble,  degraded,  contemptible,  vulgar,  despicable. 
(Generous.)  Mean,  v.,  design,  purpose,  intent,  contemplate,  signify,  denote,  in* 
dicate.  Meaning,  signification,  import,  acceptation,  sense,  purport.  Medium, 
organ,  channel,  instrument,  means.  Medley,  mixture,  variety,  diversity,  miscel- 
lany. Meek,  unassuming,  mild,  gentle.  (Proud.)  Melancholy,  low-spirited, 
dispirited,  dreamy,  sad.  ( Jolly,  buoyant.)  Mellow,  ripe,  mature,  soft.  (Imma- 
ture.) Melodious,  tuneful,  musical,  silver,  dulcet,  sv/eet.  (Discordant.)  Mem- 
orable, signal,  distinguished,  marked.  Memorial,  monument,  memento,  com- 
memoration. Memory,  remembrance,  recollection.  Menace,  «.,  threat.  Mend, 
repair,  amend,  correct,  better,  ameliorate,  improve,  rectify.  Mention,  tell,  name, 
communicate,  impart,  divulge,  reveal,  disclose,  inform,  acquaint.  Merciful,  com- 
passionate, lenient,  clement,  tender,  gracious,  kind.  (Cruel.)  Merciless,  hard- 
hearted, cruel,  unmerciful,  pitiless,  remorseless,  unrelenting.  (Kind.)  Merri- 
ment, mirth,  joviality,  jollity,  hilarity.  (Sorrow.)  Merry,  cheerful,  mirthful,  joy- 
ous, gay,  lively,  sprightly,  hilarious,  blithe,  blithesome,  jovial,  sportive,  jolly. 
(Sad.)  Metaphorical,  figurative,  allegorical,  symbolical.  Method,  way,  man- 
ner, mode,  process,  order,  rule,  regularity,  system.  Mien,  air,  look,  manner,  as- 
pect, appearance.  Migratory,  roving,  strolling,  wandering,  vagrant.  (Settled, 
sedate,  permanent ) Mimic,  imitate,  ape,  mock.  Mindful,  observant,  attentive, 
heedful,  thoughtful.  (Heedless.)  Miscellaneous,  promiscuous,  indiscriminate, 
mixed.  Mischief,  injury,  harm,  damage,  hurt,  evil,  ill.  (Benefit.)  Miscreant, 
caitiff,  villain,  ruffian.  Miserable,  unhappy,  wretched,  distressed,  afflicted. 
(Happy.)  Miserly,  stingy,  niggardly,  avaricious,  griping.  Misery,  wretched- 


srjvoArrAfS  and  antontms. 


ness,  woe,  destitution,  penury,  privation,  beggary.  (Happiness.)  Misfortune, 
calamity,  disaster,  mishap,  catastrophe.  (Good  luck.)  Miss,  omit,  lose,  fail,  mis- 
carry. Mitigate,  alleviate,  relieve,  abate,  diminish.  (Aggravate.)  Moderate, 
temperate,  abstemious,  sober,  abstinent.  (Immoderate.)  Modest,  chaste,  virtu- 
ous, bashful,  reserved.  (Immodest.)  Moist,  wet,  damp,  dank,  humid.  (Dry.) 
Monotonous,  unvaried,  dull,  tiresome,  undiversified.  (Varied.)  Monstrous', 
shocking,  dreadful,  horrible,  huge,  immense.  Monument,  memorial,  record,  re- 
membrancer, cenotaph.  Mood,  humor,  disposition,  vein,  temper.  Morbid,  sick, 
ailing,  sickly,  diseased,  corrupted.  (Normal,  sound.)  Morose,  gloomy,  sullen, 
surly,  fretful,  crabbed,  crusty.  (Joyous.)  Mortal,  deadly,  fatal,  human.  Mo- 
tion, proposition,  proposal,  movement.  Motionless,  still,  stationary,  torpid,  stag- 
nant. (Active,  moving  ) Mount,  arise,  rise,  ascend,  soar,  tower,  climb,  scale. 
Mournful,  sad,  sorrowful,  lugubrious,  grievous,  doleful,  heavy.  (Happy.)  Move, 
actuate,  impel,  induce,  prompt,  instigate,  persuade,  stir,  agitate,  propel,  push. 
Multitude,  crowd,  throng,  host,  mob,  swarm.  Murder,  v.,  kill,  assassinate,  slay, 
massacre,  despatch.  Muse,  v.,  meditate,  contemplate,  think,  reflect,  cogitate, 
ponder.  Music,  harmony,  melody,  symphony.  Musical,  tuneful,  melodious, 
harmonious,  dulcet,  sweet.  Musty,  stale,  sour,  fetid.  (Fresh,  sweet.)  Mute, 
dumb,  silent,  speechless.  Mutilate,  maim,  cripple,  disable,  disfigure.  Muti- 
nous. insurgent,  seditious,  tumultuous,  turbulent,  riotous.  (Obedient,  orderly.) 
Mutual,  reciprocal,  interchanged,  correlative.  (Sole,  solitary.)  Mysterious, 
dark,  obscure,  hidden,  secret,  dim,  mystic,  enigmatical,  unaccountable.  (Open, 
clear.)  Mystify,  confuse,  perplex,  puzzle.  (Clear,  explain.) 

NAKED,  nude,  bare,  uncovered,  unclothed,  rough,  rude,  simple.  (Covered, 
clad.)  Name,  z/.,  denominate,  entitle,  style,  designate,  term,  call,  christen. 
Name,  appellation,  designation,  denomination,  title,  cognomen,  reputation, 
character,  fame,  credit,  repute.  Narrate,  tell,  relate,  detail,  recount,  describe, 
enumerate,  rehearse,  recite.  Nasty,  filthy,  foul,  dirty,  unclean,  impure,  indecent, 
gross,  vile.  Nation,  people,  community,  realm,  state.  Native,  indigenous,  in- 
born, vernacular.  Natural,  original,  regular,  normal,  bastard.  (Unnatural,  forced.) 
Near,  nigh,  neighboring,  close,  adjacent,  contiguous,  intimate.  (Distant.)  Neces- 
sary, needful,  expedient,  essential,  requisite,  indispensable.  (Useless.)  Ne- 
cessitate, z'.,  compel,  force,  oblige.  Necessity,  need,  occasion,  exigency,  emer- 
gency, urgency,  requisite.  Need,  necessity,  distress,  poverty,  indigence,  want, 
penury.  Need,  v.,  require,  want,  lack.  Neglect,  v.,  disregard,  slight,  omit,  over- 
look. Neglect,  n.,  omission,  failure,  default,  negligence,  remissness,  carelessness, 
slight.  Neighborhood,  environs,  vicinity,  nearness,  adjacency,  proximity. 
Nervous,  timid,  timorous,  shaky.  New,  fresh,  recent,  novel.  (Old.)  News, 
tidings,  intelligence,  information.  Nice,  exact,  accurate,  good,  particular,  precise, 
fine,  delicate.  (Careless,  coarse,  unpleasant.)  Nimble,  active,  brisk,  lively,  alert, 
quick,  agile,  prompt.  (Awkward  ) Nobility,  aristocracy,  greatness,  grandeur, 
peerage.  Noble,  exalted,  elevated,  illustrious,  great,  grand,  lofty.  (Low.)  Noise, 
cry,  outcry,  clamor,  row,  din,  uproar,  tumult.  (Silence.)  Nonsensical,  irrational, 
absurd,  silly,  foolish.  (Sensible.)  Notable,  plain,  evident,  remarkable,  signal, 
striking,  rare.  (Obscure.)  Note,  j.,  token,  symbol,  mark,  sign,  indication,  re- 
mark, comment.  Noted,  distinguished,  remarkable,  eminent,  renowned.  (Ob- 
scure.) Notice,  J.,  advice,  notification,  intelligence,  information.  Notice,  z'., 
mark,  note,  observe,  attend  to,  regard,  heed.  Notify,  v.,  publish,  acquaint,  ap- 
prise, inform,  declare.  Notion,  conception,  idea,  belief,  opinion,  sentiment.  No- 
torious, conspicuous,  open,  obvious,  ill-famed.  (Unknown.)  Nourish,  nurture, 
cherish,  foster,  supply.  (Starve,  famish.)  Nourishment,  food,  diet,  sustenance, 
nutrition.  Novel,  modern,  new,  fresh,  recent,  unused,  strange,  rare.  (Old.) 
Noxious,  hurtful,  deadly,  poisonous,  deleterious,  baneful.  (Beneficial.)  Nullify, 
annul,  v^^ate,  invalidate,  quash,  cancel,  repeal.  (Affirm  ) NutritionVfood,  diet, 
nutriment,  nourishment. 

OBDURATE,  hard,  callous,  hardened,  unfeeling,  insensible  (Yielding,  tract- 
able.) Obedient,  compliant,  submissive,  dutiful,  respectful.  (Obstinate.)  Obesg, 
corpulent,  fat,  adipose,  fleshy.  (Attenuated.)  Obey,  v.,  conform,  comply,  submit. 
(Rebel,  disobey.)  Object,  j.,  aim,  end,  purpose,  design,  mark,  butt.  Object,  v., 
oppose,  except  to,  contravene,  impeach,  deprecate.  (Assent.)  Obnoxious,  offen- 
sive. (Agreeable.)  Obscure,  undistinguished,  unknown.  (Distinguished.) 

56 


S2'NOi\  rMS  AND  ANTONYMS. 


Obstinate,  contumacious,  headstrong,  stubborn,  obdurate.  (Yielding.)  Occa- 
sion, opportunity.  Offense,  aflfront,  misdeed,  misdemeanor,  transgression,  tres- 
pass. Offensive,  insolent,  abusive,  obnoxious.  (Inoffensive.)  Office, 
charge,  function,  place.  Offspring,  issue,  progeny.  Old,  aged,  superannuated, 
ancient,  antique,  antiquated,  oosolete,  old-fashioned.  (Young,  new.)  Omen,  pre- 
sage, prognostic.  Opaque,  dark.  (Bright,  transparent.)  Open,  candid,  unre- 
serv^ed,  clear,  fair.  (Hidden,  dark.)  Opinion,  notion,  view,  judgment,  belief, 
sentiment.  Opinionated,  conceited,  egoistical.  (Modest.)  Oppose,  resist, 
withstand,  thwart.  (Give  way.)  Option,  choice.  Order,  method,  rule,  system, 
regularity.  (Disorder.)  Origin,  cause,  occasion,  beginning,  source.  (End.) 
Outlive,  survive.  Outward,  external,  outside,  exterior.  (Inner.)  Over,  above. 
(Under.)  Overbalance,  outweigh,  preponderate.  Overbear,  bear  down,  over- 
whelm, overpower,  subdue.  Overbearing,  haughty,  arrogant,  proud.  (Gentle.) 
Overflow,  inundation,  deluge.  Overrule,  supersede,  suppress.  Overspread, 
overrun,  ravage.  Overturn,  invert,  overthrow,  reverse,  subvert.  (Establish, 
fortify.)  Overwhelm,  crush,  defeat,  vanquish. 

PAIN,  suffering,  qualm,  pang,  agony,  anguish.  (Pleasure.)  Pallid,  pale,  wan. 
(Florid.)  Part,  division,  portion,  share,  fraction.  (Whole.)  Particular,  exact, 
distinct,  odd,  singular,  strange.  (General.)  Patient,  passive,  submissive,  meek. 
(Obdurate.)  Peace,  calm,  quiet,  tranquillity.  (War,  riot,  trouble,  turbulence.) 
Peaceable,  pacific,  peaceful,  quiet.  (Troublesome,  riotous.)  Penetrate,  bore, 
pierce,  perforate.  Penetration,  acuteness,  sagacity.  (Dullness.)  People, 
nation,  persons,  folks  Perceive,  note,  observe,  discern,  distinguish.  Percep- 
tion, conception,  notion,  idea.  Peril,  danger,  pitfall,  snare.  (Safety.)  Permit, 
allow,  tolerate.  (Forbid.)  Persuade,  allure,  entice,  prevail  upon.  Physical, 
corporeal,  bodily,  material.  (Mental.)  Picture,  engraving,  print,  representation, 
illustration,  image.  Piteous,  doleful,  woful,  rueful.  (Joyful.)  Pitiless,  see 
merciless.  Pity,  •compassion,  sympathy.  (Cruelty.)  Place,  «.,  spot,  site,  position, 
post,  situation,  station.  Place,  z/.,  order,  dispose.  Plain,  open,  manifest,  evi- 
dent. (Secret.)  Play,  game,  sport,  amusement.  (Work.)  Please,  gratify,  paci- 
fy. (Displease.)  Pleasure,  charm,  delight,  joy.  (Pain.)  Plentiful,  abundant, 
ample,  copious,  plenteous.  (Scarce.)  Poise,  balance.  Positive,  absolute,  per- 
emptory, decided,  certain.  (Negative.)  Possessor,  owner,  master,  proprietor. 
Possible,  practical,  practicable.  (Impossible.)  Poverty,  penury,  indigence, 
need,  want.  (Wealth.)  Power,  authority,  force,  strength,  dominion.  Powerful, 
mighty,  potent.  (Weak.)  Praise,  commend,  extol,  laud.  (Blame.)  Prayer, 
entreaty,  petition,  request,  suit.  Pretense,  n.,  pretext,  subterfuge.  Prevailing, 
predominant,  prevalent,  general.  (Isolated,  sporadic.)  Prevent,  v.,  obviate,  pre- 
clude. Previous,  antecedent,  introductory,  preparatory,  preliminary.  (Subse- 
quent.) Pride,  vanity,  conceit.  (Humility.)  Principally,  chiefly,  essentially, 
mainly.  Principle,  ground,  reason,  motive,  impulse,  maxim,  rule,  rectitude,  in- 
tegrity. Privilege,  immunity,  advantage,  favor,  prerogative,  exemption,  right, 
claim.  Probity,  rectitude,  uprightness,  honesty,  integrity,  sincerity,  soundness. 
(Dishonesty.)  Problematical,  uncertain,  doubtful,  dubious,  questionable,  dis- 
putable, suspicious.  (Certain.)  Prodigious,  huge,  enormous,  vast,  amazing,  as- 
tonishing, astounding,  surprising,  remarkable,  wonderful.  (Insignificant.)  Pro- 
fession, business,  trade,  occupation,  vocation,  office,  employment,  engagement, 
avowal.  Proffer,  volunteer,  offer,  propose,  tender.  Profligate,  abandoned,  dis- 
solute, depraved,  vicious,  degenerate,  corrupt,  demoralized.  (Virtuous.)  Pro- 
found, deep,  fathomless,  penetrating,  solemn,  abstruse,  recondite.  (Shallow.) 
Profuse,  extravagant,  prodigal,  lavish,  improvident,  excessive,  copious,  plentiful. 
(Succinct.)  Prolific,  productive,  generative,  fertile,  fruitful,  teeming.  (Barren.) 
Prolix,  diffuse,  long,  prolonged,  tedious,  tiresome,  wordy,  verbose,  prosaic.  (Con- 
cise, brief.)  Prominent,  eminent,  conspicuous,  marked,  important^  leading. 
(Obscure.)  Promiscuous,  mixed,  unarranged,  mingled,  indiscriminate.  (Select.) 
Prompt,  see  punctual.  Prop,  v.,  maintain,  sustain,  support,  stay.  Propa- 
gate, spread,  circulate,  diffuse,  disseminate,  extend,  breed,  increase.  (Suppress.) 
Proper,  legitimate,  right,  just,  fair,  equitable,  honest,  suitable,  fit,  adapted,  meet, 
becoming,  befitting,  decent,  pertinent,  appropriate.  (Wrong.)  Prosper,  flourish, 
succeed,  grow  rich,  thrive,  advance.  (Fail.)  Prosperity,  well-being,  weal,  wel- 
fare, happiness,  good  luck.  (Poverty.)  Proxy,  agent,  representative,  subititute, 

57 


STNONTMS  AND  ANTONTMS, 

delegate,  deputy.  Prudence,  carefulness,  judgment,  discretion,  wisdom.  (Indis- 
cretion.) Prurient,  itching,  craving,  hankering,  longing.  Puerile,  youthful 
juvenile,  boyish,  childish,  infantile,  trifling,  weak,  silly.  (Mature.)  Punctilious’ 
nice,  particular,  formal,  precise.  (Negligent.)  Punctual,  exact,  precise,  nice’ 
particular,  prompt,  timely.  (Dilatory.)  Putrefy,  rot,  decompose,  corrupt,  decay.’ 
Puzzle,  V.,  perplex,  confound,  embarrass,  bewilder,  confuse,  pose,  mystify.  (En- 
lighten.) 

QUACK,  impostor,  pretender,  charlatan,  empiric,  mountebank.  (Savant.) 
Quaint,  artful,  curious,  far-fetched,  fanciful,  odd,  singular.  Qualified,  compe- 
tent, fitted,  adapted.  (Incompetent.)  Quality,  attribute,  rank,  distinction. 
Querulous,  doubting,  complaining,  fretting,  repining.  (Patient.)  Question, 
query,  inquiry,  interrogatory.  Quibble,  cavil,  evade,  equivocate,  shuffle,  prevari- 
cate. Quick,  lively,  ready,  prompt,  alert,  nimble,  agile,  active,  brisk,  expeditious, 
adroit,  fleet,  rapid,  swift,  impetuous,  sweeping,  dashing,  clever,  sharp.  (Slow.) 
Quote,  note,  repeat,  cite,  adduce. 

RABID,  mad,  furious,  raging,  frantic.  (Rational.)  Race,  course,  match,  pur- 
suit, career,  family,  clan,  house,  ancestry,  lineage,  pedigree.  Rack,  agonize, 
wring,  torture,  excruciate,  distress,  harass.  (Soothe.)  Racy,  spicy,  pungent, 
smart,  spirited,  lively,  vivacious.  (Dull,  insipid.)  Radiance,  splendor,  bright- 
ness, brilliance,  brilliancy,  lustre,  glare.  (Dullness.)  Radical,  organic,  innate, 
fundamental,  original,  constitutional,  inherent,  complete,  entire.  (Superficial.  In 
a political  sense,  uncompromising;  antonym,  moderate.)  Rancid,  fetid,  rank, 
stinking,  sour,  tainted,  reasty.  (Fresh,  sweet.)  Rancor,  malignity,  hatred,  hos- 
tility, antipathy,  animosity,  enmity,  ill-will,  spite.  (Forgiveness.)  Rank,  order, 
degree,  dignity,  nobility,  consideration.  Ransack,  rummage,  pillage,  overhaul, 
explore,  plunder.  Ransom,  emancipate,  free,  unfetter.  Rant,  bombast,  fustian, 
cant.  Rapacious,  ravenous,  voracious,  greedy,  grasping.  (Generous.)  Rapt, 
ecstatic,  transported,  ravished,  entranced,  charmed.  (Distracted.)  Rapture, 
ecstasy,  transport,  delight,  bliss.  (Dejection.)  Rare,  scarce,  singular,  uncommon, 
unique.  Rascal,  scoundrel,  rogue,  knave,  scamp,  vagabond.  Rash,  hasty,  pre- 
cipitate, foolhardy,  adventurous,  heedless,  reckless,  careless.  (Deliberate.)  Rate, 
value,  compute,  appraise,  estimate,  chide,  abuse.  Ratify,  comfirm,  establish,  sub- 
stantiate, sanction.  (Protest,  oppose. ) Rational,  reasonable,  sagacious,  judicious,;, 
wise,  sensible,  sound.  (Unreasonable.)  Ravage,  overrun,  overspread,  desolate, 
despoil,  destroy.  Ravish,  enrapture,  enchant,  charm,  delight,  abuse.  Raze,  de- 
molish, destroy,  overthrow,  ruin,  dismantle.  (Build  up.)  Reach,  touch,  stretch, 
attain,  gain,  arrive  at.  Ready,  prepared,  ripe,  apt,  prompt,  adroit,  handy.  (Slow, 
dilatory.)  Real,  actual,  literal,  practical,  positive,  certain,  genuine,  true.  (Un- 
real.) Realize,  accomplish,  achieve,  effect,  gain,  get,  acquire,  comprehend. 
Reap,  gain,  get,  acquire,  obtain.  Reason,  motive,  design,  end,  proof,  cause, 
ground,  purpose.  Reason,  deduce,  draw  from,  trace,  infer,  conclude.  Reason- 
able, rational,  wise,  honest,  fair,  right,  just.  (Unreasonable.)  Rebellion,  insur- 
rection, revolt.  Recant,  recall,  abjure,  retract,  revoke.'  Recede,  retire,  retreat, 
withdraw,  ebb.  Receive,  accept,  take,  admit,  entertain.  Reception,  receiving, 
levee,  receipt,  admission.  Recess,  retreat,  depth,  niche,  vacation,  intermission. 
Recreation,  sport,  pastime,  play,  amusement,  game,  fun.  Redeem,  ransom,  re- 
cover, rescue,  deliver,  save,  free.  Redress,  remedy,  repair,  remission,  abate- 
ment, relief.  Reduce,  abate,  lessen,  decrease,  lower,  shorten,  conquer.  Re- 
fined, polite,  courtly,  polished,  cultured,  genteel,  purified.  (Boorish.)  Reflect, 
consider,  cogitate,  think,  ponder,  muse,  censure.  Reform,  amend,  correct,  better, 
restore,  improve.  (Corrupt.)  Reformation,  improvement,  reform,  amendment. 
(Corruption.)  Refuge,  asylum,  protection,  harbor,  shelter,  retreat.  Refuse,  v., 
deny,  reject,  repudiate,  decline,  withhold.  (Accept.)  Refuse,  s.,  dregs,  dross, 
s^um,  rubbish,  leavings,  remains.  Refute,  disprove,  falsify,  negative.  (Affirm.) 
Regard,  v.,  mind,  heed,  notice,  behold,  view,  consider,  respect.  Regret,  s., 
grief,  sorrow,  lamentation,  repentance,  remorse.  Regular,  orderly,  uniform,  cus- 
tomary, ordinary,  stated.  (Irregular.)  Regulate,  methodize,  arrange,  adjust, 
organize,  govern,  rule.  (Disorder.)  Reimburse,  refund,  repay,  satisfy,  indemni- 
fy. Relevant,  fit,  proper,  suitable,  appropriate,  pertinent,  apt.  (Irrelevant.)  Re- 
liance, trust,  hope,  dependence,  confidence.  (Suspicion.)  Relief,  succor,  aid, 

58 


STNONTMS  AND  ANTONTMS. 


help,  redf^ss,  alleviation.  Relinquish,  give  up,  forsake,  resign,  su/render,  quit, 
leave,  forego.  (Retain.)  Remedy,  help,  relief,  redress,  cure,  specific,  reparation. 
Remorseless,  pitiless,  relentless,  cruel,  ruthless,  merciless,  barbarous.  (Merciful, 
humane.)  Remote,  distant,  far,  secluded,  indirect.  (Near.)  Reproduce,  pro- 
pagate, imitate,  represent,  copy.  Repudiate,  disown,  discord,  disavow,  renounce, 
disclaim.  (Acknowledge.)  Repugnant,  antagonistic,  distasteful.  (Agreeable.) 
Repulsive,  forbidding,  odious,  ugly,  disagreeable,  revolting.  (Attractive.)  Res- 
pite, reprieve,  interval,  stop,  pause.  Revenge,  vengeance,  retaliation,  requital, 
retribution.  (Forgiveness.)  Revenue,  produce,  income,  fruits,  proceeds,  wealth. 
Reverence,  n.,  honor,  respect,  awe,  veneration,  deference,  worship,  homage. 
(Execration.)  Revise,  review,  reconsider.  Revive,  refresh,  renew,  renovate, 
animate,  resuscitate,  vivify,  cheer,  comfort.  Rich,  wealthy,  affluent,  opulent, 
copious,  ample,  abundant,  exuberant,  plentiful,  fertile,  fruitful,  superb,  gorgeous. 
(Poor.)  Rival,  n.,  antagonist,  opponent,  competitor.  Road,  way,  highway, 
route,  cou  se,  path,  pathway,  ancliorage.  Roam,  ramble,  rove,  wander,  stray, 
stroll.  Ro^^ust,  strong,  lusty,  vigorous,  sinewy,  stout,  sturdy,  stalwart,  able-bodied. 
(Puny.)  Rcut,  v.,  discomfit,  beat,  defeat,  overthrow,  scatter.  Route,  road, 
course,  march  way,  journey,  path,  direction.  Rude,  rugged,  rough,  uncouth,  un- 
polished, harsh,  gruff,  impertinent,  saucy,  flippant,  impudent,  insolent,  churlish. 
(Polished,  polite.)  Rule,  sway,  method,  system,  law,  maxim,  precept,  guide,  for- 
mula, regulation,  government,  standard,  test.  Rumor,  hearsay,  talk,  fame, 
report,  bruit.  Ruthless,  cruel,  savage,  barbarous,  inhuman,  merciless,  remorseless, 
relentless,  unrelenting.  (Considerate.) 

SACRED,  holy,  hallowed,  divine,  consecrated,  dedicated,  devoted.  (Profane.) 
Safe,  secure,  harmless,  trustworthy,  reliable.  (Perilous,  dangerous.)  Sanction, 
confirm,  countenance,  encourage,  support,  ratify,  authorize.  (Disapprove.)  Sane, 
sober,  lucid,  sound,  rational.  (Crazy.)  Saucy,  impertinent,  rude,  impudent,  in- 
solent, flippant,  forward.  (Modest.)  Scandalize,  shock,  disgust,  offend,  calum- 
niate, vilify,  revile,  malign,  traduce,  defame,  slander.  Scanty,  bare,  pinched,  in- 
sufficient, slender;  meager.  (Ample.)  Scatter,  strew,  spread,  disseminate,  dis- 
perse, dissipate,  dispel.  (Collect.)  Secret,  clandestine,  concealed,  hidden,  sly, 
underhand,  latent,  private.  (Open.)  Seduce,  allure,  attract,  decoy,  entice,  ab- 
duct, inveigle,  deprave.  Sense,  discernment,  appreciation,  view,  opinion,  feeling, 
perception,  sensibility,  susceptibility,  thought,  judgment,  signification,  import,  sig- 
nificance, meaning,  purport,  wisdom.  Sensible,  wise,  intelligent,  reasonable, 
sober,  sound,  conscious,  aware.  (Foolish.)  Settle,  arrange,  adjust,  regulate,  con- 
clude, determine.  Several,  sundry,  divers,  various,  many.  Severe,  harsh, 
stern,  stringent,  unmitigated,  rough,  unyielding.  (Lenient.)  Shake,  tremble, 
shudder,  shiver,  quake,  quiver  Shallow,  superficial,  flimsy,  slight.  (Deep, 
thorough.)  Shame,  disgrace,  dishonor.  (Honor.)  Shameful,  degrading,  scan- 
dalous, disgraceful,  outrageous  (Honorable.)  Shameless,  immodest,  impudent, 
indecent,  indelicate,  brazen.  Shape,  form,  fashion,  mold,  model.  Share,  por- 
tion, lot,  division,  quantity,  quota,  contingent.  Sharp,  acute,  keen.  (Dull.) 
Shine,  glare,  glitter,  radiate,  sparkle.  Short,  brief,  concise,  succinct,  summary. 
(Long.)  Show,  z/.,  indicate,  mark,  point  out,  exhibit,  display.  Show,  «.,  exhibi- 
tion, representation,  sight,  spectacle.  Sick,  diseased,  sickly,  unhealthy,  morbid. 
(Healthy.)  Sickness,  n.,  illness,  indisposition,  disease,  disorder.  (Health.) 
Significant,  tf.,  expressive,  material,  important.  (Insignificant.)  Signification, 
import,  meaning,  sense.  Silence,  speechlessness,  dumbness.  (Noise.)  Silent, 
dumb,  mute,  speechless.  (Talkative.)  Simile,  comparison,  similitude.  Simple, 
single,  uncompounded,  artless,  plain.  (Complex,  compound.)  Simulate,  dis- 
simulate, dissemble,  pretend.  Sincere,  candid,  hearty,  honest,  pure,  genuine, 
real.  (Insincere.)  Situation,  condition,  plight,  predicament,  state,  position. 
Size,  bulk,  greatness,  magnitude,  dimension.  Slavery,  servitude,  enthrallment, 
thralldom.  (Freedom.)  Sleep,  doze,  drowse,  nap,  slumber.  Sleepy,  somnolent. 
(Wakeful.)  Slow,  dilatory,  tardy.  (Fast.)  Smell,  fragrance,  odor,  perfume, 
scent.  Smooth,  even,  level,  mild.  (Rough.)  Soak,  drench,  imbrue,  steep. 
Social,  sociable,  friendly,  communicative.  (Unsocial.)  Soft,  gentle,  meek, 
mild.  (Hard.)  Solicit,  importune,  urge.  Solitary,  sole,  only,  single.  Sorry, 
grieved,  poor,  paltry,  insignificant.  (Glad,  respectable.)  Soul,  mind,  spirit. 
(Soul  is  opposed  to  body,  mind  to  matter.)  Sound,  v.^  healthy,  sane.  (Unsound.) 


STNONTMS  AND  ANTONYMS. 


Sound,  n.t  tone,  noise,  silence.  Space,  room.  Sparse,  scanty,  thin.  (Lux- 
uriant.) Speak,  converse,  talk,  confer,  say,  tell.  Special,  particular,  specific. 
(General.)  Spend,  expend,  exhaust,  consume,  waste,  squander,  dissipate.  (Save.) 
Sporadic,  isolated,  rare.  (General,  prevalent.)  Spread,  disperse,  diffuse,  ex- 
pand, disseminate,  scatter.  Spring,  fountain,  source.  Staff,  prop,  support,  stay. 
Stagger,  reel,  totter.  Stain,  soil,  discolor,  spot,  sully,  tarnish.  State,  common- 
wealth, realm.  Sterile,  barren,  unfruitful.  (Fertile.)  Stifle,  choke,  suffocate, 
smother.  Stormy,  rough,  boisterous,  tempestuous.  (Calm.)  Straight,  direct, 
right.  (Crooked.)  Strait,  narrow,  confined.  Stranger,  alien,  foreigner. 
(Friend.)  Strengthen,  fortify,  invigorate.  (Weaken.)  Strong,  robust,  sturdy, 
powerful.  (Weak.)  Stupid,  dull,  foolish,  obtuse,  witless.  (Clever.)  Subject, 
exposed  to,  liable,  obnoxious.  (Exempt.)  Subject,  inferior,  subordinate.  (Su- 
perior to,  above.)  Subsequent,  succeeding,  following.  (Previous.)  Substan- 
tial, solid,  durable.  (Unsubstantial.)  Suit,  accord,  agree.  (Disagree.)  Super- 
ficial, flimsy,  shallow,  untrustworthy.  (Thorough.)  Superfluous,  unnecessary, 
excessive.  (Necessary.)  Surround,  encircle,  encompass,  environ.  Sustain, 
maintain,  support.  Symmetry,  proportion.  Sympathy,  commiseration,  com- 
passion, condolence.  System,  method,  plan,  order.  Systematic,  orderly,  regu- 
lar, methodical.  (Chaotic.) 

TAKE,  accept,  receive.  (Give.)  Talkative,  garrulous,  loquacious,  communi- 
cative. (Silent.)  Taste,  flavor,  relish,  savor.  (Tastlessness.)  Tax,  custom, 
duty,  impost,  excise,  toll.  Tax,  assessment,  rate.  Tease,  taunt,  tantalise,  tor- 
ment, vex.  Temporary, a.,  fleeting,  transient,  transitory.  (Permanent.)  Tena- 
cious, pertinacious,  retentive.  Tendency,  aim,  drift,  scope.  Tenet,  position, 
view,  conviction,  belief.  Term,  boundary,  limit,  period,  time.  Territory,  do- 
minion. Thankful,  grateful,  obliged.  (Thankless.)  Thankless,  ungracious, 
pH-ofitless,  ungrateful,  unthankful.  Thaw,  melt,  dissolve,  liquefy.  (Freeze.) 
Theatrical,  dramatic,  showy,  ceremonious,  meretricious.  Theft,  robbery,  depre- 
dation, spoliation.  Theme,  subject,  topic,  text,  essay.  Theory,  speculation, 
scheme,  plea,  hypothesis,  conjecture.  Therefore,  accordingly,  consequently, 
hence.  Thick,  dense,  close,  compact,  solid,  coagulated,  muddy,  turbid,  misty, 
foggy»  vaporous.  (Thin.)  Thin,  slim,  slender,  slight,  flimsy,  lean,  attenuated, 
scraggy.  Think,  cogitate,  consider,  reflect,  ponder,  contemplate,  meditate,  muse, con- 
ceive, fancy,  imagine,  apprehend,  hold,  esteem,  reckon,  consider,  regard,  deem,  be- 
lieve, opine.  Thorough,  accurate,  correct,  trustworthy,  reliable,  complete.  (Super- 
ficial.) Thought,  idea,  conception,  imagination,  fancy,  conceit,  notion,  supposition, 
care,  provision,  consideration,  opinion,  view,  sentiment,  reflection,  deliberation. 
Thoughtful,  considerate,  careful,  cautious,  heedful,  contemplative,  reflective, 
provident,  pensive,  dreamy.  (Thoughtless.)  Thoughtless,  inconsiderate,  rash, 
precipitate,  improvident,  heedless.  Tie,  v.,  bind,  restrain,  restrict,  oblige,  secure, 
unite,  join.  (Loose.)  Tie,  «.,  band,  ligament,  ligature.  Time,  duration,  season, 
period,  era,  age,  date,  span,  spell.  Tolerate,  allow,  admit,  receive,  suffer,  per- 
mit, let,  endure,  abide.  (Oppose.)  Top,  summit,  apex,  head,  crown,  surface. 
(Bottom,  base.)  Torrid,  burning,  hot,  parching,  scorching,  sultry.  Tortuous, 
twisted,  winding,  crooked,  indirect.  Torture,  torment,  anguish,  agony.  Touch- 
ing, tender,  affecting,  moving,  pathetic.  Tractable,  docile,  manageable,  amen- 
able. Trade,  traffic,  commerce,  dealing,  occupation,  employment,  office.  Tra- 
ditional, oral,  uncertain,  transmitted.  Traffic,  trade,  exchange,  commerce,  in- 
tercourse. Trammel,  n.,  fetter,  shackle,  clog,  bond,  chain,  impediment,  hin- 
drance. Tranquil,  sti  1,  unrufflled,  peaceful,  quiet,  hushed.  (Noisy,  boisterous.) 
Transaction,  negotiation,  occurrence,  proceeding,  affair.  Trash,  nonsense, 
twaddle,  trifles,  dross.  Travel,  trip,  ramble,  peregrination,  excursion,  journey, 
tour,  voyage.  Treacherous,  traitorous,  disloyal,  treasonable,  faithless,  false- 
hearted, perfidious,  sly,  false.  (Trustworthy,  faithful  ) Trite,  stale,  old,  ordinary, 
commonplace,  hackneyed.  (Novel.)  Triumph,  achievement,  ovation,  victory, 
conquest,  jubilation.  (Failure,  defeat.)  Trivial,  trifling,  petty,  small,  frivolous, 
unimportant,  insignificant.  (Important.)  True,  genuine,  actual,  sincere,  un- 
affected, true-hearted,  honest,  upright,  veritable,  real,  veracious,  authentic,  exact, 
accurate,  correct.  Tumultuous,  turbulent,  riotous,  disorderly,  disturbed,  con- 
fused, unruly.  (Orderly.)  Tune,  tone,  air,  melody,  strain.  Turbid,  foul,  thick, 

60 


SrNONTMS  AND  ANTONTMS. 


muddy,  impure,  unsettled.  (Placid.)  Type,  emblem,  symbol,  figure,  sign,  kin\ 
sort,  letter.  Tyro,  novice,  beginner,  learner. 

UGLY,  unsightly,  plain,  homely,  ill-favored,  hideous.  (Beautiful.)  Umbrage, 
offence,  dissatisfaction,  displeasure,  resentment.  Umpire,  referee,  arbitrator, 
judge,  arbiter.  Unanimity,  accord,  agreement,  unity,  concord.  (Discord.) 
Unanimous,  agreeing,  like-minded.  Unbridled,  wanton,  licentious,  dissolute, 
loose,  lax.  Uncertain,  doubtful,  dubious,  questionable,  fitful,  equivocal,  ambigu- 
ous, indistinct,  variable,  fluctuating.  Uncivil,  rude,  discourteous,  disrespectful, 
disobliging.  (Civil.)  Unclean,  dirty,  foul,  filthy,  sullied.  (Clean.)  Uncom- 
mon, rare,  strange,  scarce,  singular,  choice.  (Common,  ordinary.)  Uncon- 
cerned, careless,  indifferent,  apathetic.  (Anxious.)  Uncouth,  strange,  odd, 
clumsy,  ungainly.  (Graceful.)  Uncover,  reveal,  strip,  expose,  lay  bare,  divest. 
(Hide.)  Under,  below,  underneath,  beneath,  subordinate,  lower,  inferior. 
(Above.)  Understanding,  knowledge,  intellect,  intelligence,  faculty,  comprehen- 
sion, mind,  reason,  brains.  Undertake,  engage  in,  embark  in,  agree,  promise. 
Undo,  annul,  frustrate,  untie,  unfasten,  destroy.  Uneasy,  restless,  disturbed,  un- 
quiet, stiff,  awkward.  (Quiet.)  Unequal,  uneven,  not  alike,  irregular,  insuffi- 
cient. (Even.)  Unequaled,  matchless,  unique,  novel,  new,  unheard  of.  Un- 
fair, wrongful,  dishonest,  unjust.  (Fair.)  Unfit,  a.,  improper,  unsuitable,  incon- 
sistent, untimely,  incompetent.  (Fit.)  Unfit,  v.,  disable,  incapacitate,  disqualify. 
(Fit.)  Unfortunate,  calamitous,  ill-fated,  unlucky,  wretched,  unhappy,  miser- 
able. (Fortunate.)  Ungainly,  clumsy,  awkward,  lumbering,  uncouth.  (Pretty.) 
Unhappy,  miserable,  wretched,  distressed,  afflicted,  painful,  disastrous,  drear, 
dismal.  (Happy.)  Uniform,  regular,  symmetrical,  equal,  even,  alike,  unvaried. 
(Irregular.)  Uninterrupted,  continuous,  perpetual,  unceasing,  incessant,  end- 
less. (Intermittent.)  Union,  junction,  combination,  alliance,  confederacy,  league, 
coalition,  agreement,  concert.  (Disunion,  separation.)  Unique,  unequal,  un- 
common, rare,  choice,  matchless.  (Common,  ordinary.)  Unite,  join,  conjoin, 
combine,  concert,  add,  attach,  incorporate,  embody,  clench,  merge.  (Separate, 
disrupt,  sunder.)  Universal,  general,  all,  entire,  total,  catholic.  (Sectional.) 
Unlimited,  absolute,  undefined,  boundless,  infinite.  (Limited.)  Unreasonable, 
foolish,  silly,  absurd,  preposterous,  ridiculous.  Unrivaled,  unequaled,  unique, 
unexampled,  incomparable,  matchless.  (Mediocre.)  Unroll,  unfold,  open,  dis- 
cover. Unruly,  ungovernable,  unmanageable,  refractory.  (Tractable,  docile.) 
Unusual,  rare,  unwonted,  singular,  qncommon,  remarkable,  strange,  extraordi- 
nary. (Common.)  Uphold,  maintain,  defend,  sustain,  support,  vindicate.  (Desert, 
abandon.  ) Upright,  vertical,  perpendicular,  erect,  just,  equitable,  fair,  pure, 
honorable.  (Prone,  horizontal.)  Uprightness,  honesty,  integrity,  fairness,  good- 
ness, probity,  virtue,  honor.  (Dishonesty.)  Urge,  incite,  impel,  push,  drive,  in- 
stigate, stimulate,  press,  induce,  solicit.  Urgent,  pressing,  important,  imperative, 
immediate,  serious,  wanted.  (Unimportant.)  Usage,  custom,  fashion,  practice, 
prescription.  Use,  «.,  usage,  practice,  habit,  custom,  avail,  advantage,  utility, 
benefit,  application.  (Disuse,  desuetude.)  Use,  v.,  employ,  exercise,  occupy, 
practise,  accustom,  inure.  (Abuse.)  Useful,  advantageous,  serviceable,  avail- 
able, helpful,  beneficial,  good.  (Useless.)  Useless,  unserviceable,  fruitless,  idle, 
profitless.  (Useful.)  Usual,  ordinary,  common,  accustomed,  habitual,  wonted, 
customary,  general.  (Unusual.)  Usurp,  arrogate,  seize,  appropriate,  assume. 
Utmost,  farthest,  remotest,  uttermost,  greatest.  Utter,  a.,  extreme,  excessive, 
sheer,  mere,  pure.  Utter,  v.,  speak,  articulate,  pronounce,  express,  issue. 
Utterly,  totally,  completely,  wholly,  quite,  altogether,  entirely. 

VACANT,  empty,  unfilled,  unoccupied,  thoughtless,  unthinking.  (Occupied.) 
Vagrant,  n.,  wanderer,  beggar,  tramp,  vagabond,  rogue.  Vague,  unsettled,  un- 
determined, uncertain,  pointless,  indefinite.  (Definite.)  Vain,  useless,  fruitless, 
empty,  worthless,  inflated,  proud,  conceited,  unreal,  unavailing.  (Effectual, 
humble,  real.)  Valiant,  brave,  bold,  valorous,  courageous,  gallant.  (Cowardly.) 
Valid,  weighty,  strong,  powerful,  sound,  binding,  efficient.  (Invalid.)  Valor, 
courage,  gallantry,  boldness,  bravery,  heroism.  (Cowardice.)  Value,  v.,  appraise, 
assess,  reckon,  appreciate,  estimate,  prize,  esteem,  treasure.  (Despise,  condemn.) 
Vanish,  disappear,  fade,  melt,  dissolve.  Vanity,  emptiness,  conceit,  self-conceit, 
aflfectedness.  Vapid,  dull,  flat,  insipid,  stale,  tame.  (Sparkling.)  Vapor,  fume, 


STNONTMS  AND  ANTONTMS. 


smoke,  mist,  fog,  steam.  Variable,  changeable,  unsteady,  inconstant,  fihifting, 
wavering,  fickle,  restless,  fitful.  (Constant.)  Variety,  difference,  diversity, 
change,  diversification,  mixture,  medley,  miscellany.  (Sameness,  monotony.) 
Vast,  spacious,  boundless,  mighty,  enormous,  immense,  colossal,  gigantic,  huge, 
prodigious.  (Confined.)  Vaunt,  boast,  brag,  puff,  hawk,  advertise,  flourish, 
parade.  Venerable,  grave,  sage,  wise,  old,  reverend.  Venial,  pardonable, 
excusable,  justifiable.  (Grave,  serious.)  Venom,  poison,  virus,  .®‘pite,  malice, 
malignity.  Venture,  n.,  speculation,  chance,  peril,  stake.  Venture,  t/.,  dare, 
adventure,  risk,  hazard,  jeopardize.  Veracity,  truth,  truthfulness,  credibility, 
accuracy.  (Falsehood.)  Verbal,  oral,  spoken,  literal,  parole,  unwritten.  Verdict, 
judgment,  finding,  decision,  answer.  Vexation,  chagrin,  mortification.  (Pleasure.) 
Vibrate,  oscillate,  swing,  sway,  wave,  undulate,  thrill.  Vice,  vilenes^  corruption, 
depravity,  pollution,  immorality,  wickedness,  guilt,  iniquity,  crime.  (Virtue.) 
Vicious,  corrupt,  depraved,  debased,  bad,  contrary,  unruly,  demoralized,  profli- 
gate, faulty.  (Virtuous,  gentle.)  Victim,  sacrifice,  food,  prey,  sufferer,  dupe,  gull. 
Victuals,  viands,  bread,  meat,  provisions,  fare,  food,  repast.  View,  prospect, 
survey.  Violent,  boisterous,  furious,  impetuous,  vehement.  (GentK)  Virtu- 
ous, upright,  honest,  moral.  (Profligate.)  Vision,  apparition,  ghost,  phantom, 
spectre.  Voluptuary,  epicure,  sensualist.  Vote,  suffrage,  voice.  Vouch, 
affirm,  asseverate,  assure,  aver. 

WAIT,  await,  expect,  look  for,  wait  for.  Wakeful,  vigilant,  watchful.  (Sleepy.) 
Wander,  range,  ramble,  roam,  rove,  stroll.  Want,  lack,  need.  (Abi'ndance.) 
Wary,  circumspect,  cautious.  (Foolhardy.)  Wash,  clean,  rinse,  wet,  moisten, 
stain,  tint.  Waste,  v.,  squander,  dissipate,  lavish,  destroy,  decay,  dwindle,  wither. 
Wasteful,  extravagant,  profligate.  (Economical.)  Way,  method,  plan,  system, 
means,  manner,  mode,  form,  fashion,  course,  process,  road,  route,  track,  path, 
habit,  practice.  Wave,  breaker,  billow,  surge.  Weak,  feeble,  infirm.  (Strong.) 
Weaken,  debilitate,  enfeeble,  enervate,  invalidate.  (Strengthen.)  Wearisome, 
tedious,  tiresome.  (Interesting,  enter .aining.)  Weary,  harass,  jade,  tire,  fatigue. 
(Refresh.)  Weight,  gravity,  heaviness.  (Lightness  ) Weight,  burden,  load. 
Well-being,  happiness,  prosperity,  welfare.  Whole,  entire,  complete,  total, 
integral.  (Part.)  Wicked,  iniquitous,  nefarious.  (Virtuous.)  Will,  wish,  desir§. 
Willingly,  spontaneously,  voluntarily.  (Unwillingly.)  Win,  get,  obtain,  gain, 
procure,  effect,  realize,  accomplish,  achieve.  (Lose.)  Winning,  attractive, 
charming,  fascinating,  bewitching,  enchanting,  dazzling,  brilliant.  (Repulsive.) 
Wisdom,  prudence,  foresight,  far-sightedness,  sagacity.  (Foolishness.)  Wit, 
humor,  satire,  fun,  raillery.  Wonder,  v.,  admire,  amaze,  astonish,  surprise. 
Wonder,  n.^  marvel,  miracle,  prodigy.  Word,  n.^  expression,  term.  Work, 
labor,  task,  toil.  (Play.)  Worthless,  valueless.  (Valuable.)  Writer,  author, 
penman.  Wrong,  injustice,  injury.  (Right.) 

YAWN,  gape,  open  wide.  Yearn,  hanker  after,  long  for,  desire,  crave.  Yell, 
bellow,  cry  out,  scream.  Yellow,  golden,  saffron-like.  Yelp,  bark,  sharp  cry, 
howl.  Yet,  besides,  nevertheless,  notwithstanding,  however,  still,  ultimately,  at 
last,  so  far,  thus  far.  Yield,  bear,  give,  afford,  impart,  communicate,  confer, 
bestow,  abdicate,  resign,  cede,  surrender,  relinquish,  relax,  quit,  forego,  give  up, 
let  go,  waive,  comply,  accede,  assent,  acquiesce,  succumb,  submit.  Yielding, 
supple,  pliant,  bending,  compliant,  submissive,  unresisting.  (Obstinate.)  Yoke, 
z/.,  couple,  link,  connect.  Yore,  long  ago,  long  since.  Young,  juvenile,  inex- 
perienced, ignorant,  youthful.  Youth,  boy,  lad,  minority,  adolescence,  juvenility. 
Youthful,  young,  juvenile,  boyish,  girlish,  puerile.  (Old.) 

ZEAL,  energy,  fervor,  ardor,  earnestness,  enthusiasm,  eagerness.  (Indifference.) 
Zealous,  warm,  ardent,  fervent,  enthusiastic,  anxious.  (Indifferent,  careless.) 
Zest,  relish,  gusto,  flavor.  (Disgust.) 


Lead  in  the  form  of  filings,  under  a pressure  of  2,000  atmospheres,  or  thir- 
teen tons  to  the  square  inch,  becomes  compressed  into  a solid  block,  in 
which  it  is  impossible  to  detect  the  slightest  vestige  of  the  original  grains 
Under  a pressure  of  5,000  atmospheres  it  liquifies. 

02 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE 


Facts  Astronomical,  Geographical,  Historical  and  Statistical. 

According  to  the  System  of  Copernicus  (d.  1473),  the 
Sun  was  regarded  as  the  center  of  the  universe.  The 
planets,  Mercury,  Venus,  the  Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and 
Saturn,  revolved  round  itin  circular  orbits;  the  Moon  was  a satel- 
lite of  the  Earth,  spun  round  it  as  a center,  and  accompanied 
it  on  its  annual  rotation  round  the  Sun.  Since  then  this  view 
has  been  firmly  established  "in  its  main  principles,  but  it  is  now 
known  that  the  Sun  itself  moves  steadily  toward  the  constella- 
tion Hercules,  and  that  it  is  by  no  means  the  largest  body  in  the 
universe.  The  Solar  System  is  known  to  consist  of  a central 
Sun,  round  which  all  the  other  members  revolve.  These  consist 
of  eight  primary  planets,  viz.:  Mercury,  Venus,  the  Earth, 
Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Neptune  ; twenty  secondary 
planets,  satellites^  or  attendants  upon  the  planets,  of  which  the 
Earth  has  one,  Mars  two,  Jupiter  four,  Saturn  eight,  Uranus 
four,  and  Neptune  one  ; a number  of  minor  planets  or  asteroids 
situated  between  Mars  and  Jupiter,  of  which  271  are  known;  sev- 
eral comets,  and  a great  number  of  small  meteoric  bodies. 

In  their  broad  general  features  the  planets  are  all  alike.  The 
ball  or  globe-like  form  is  peculiar  to  all  of  them,  they  are  all 
dark  bodies,  deriving  light  and  heat  from  the  sun,  and  conse- 
quently they  all  reflect  the  same  borrowed  light.  In  common, 
they  all  perform  two  motions,  the  one  a spinning  or  rotatory  mo- 
tion on  an  axis,  the  other  a motion  of  translation,  which  whirls 
them  round  the  sun.  Both  these  motions  are  from  west  to  east, 
and  the  orbits  which  they  describe  round  the  sun  are  not  circu- 
lar, as  represented  by  the  Copernican  System,  but  assume  more 
the  form  of  an  oval  or  ellipse. 


SOME  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  PLANETARY  SYSTEM. 


Names  of 
the  Planets. 

Diameter 
in  miles. 

Periodic 
time.  Days. 

Dis.  from  the 
Sun.  Miles. 

Revolves  on 
its  Axis. 

Moves  in  its  Or- 
bit per  hour. 

Mercury 

3,200 

88 

37 

Mill. 

24  h.  5 m 

110,000  Miles 

Venus  . . 

7,700 

224.7 

69 

“ 

23  h.  21  m 

83.000  “ 

Earth.  . . 

7,916 

365^ 

95 

a 

23  h.  56  m 

68,000  ‘• 

Mars . . . 

4,200 

687 

145 

u 

24  h.  39  m 

54,000  “ 

Jupiter.  . 

88,000 

4,3323^ 

494 

u 

9 h.  56  m 

30,000  “ 

Saturn . . 

75,000 

10,759 

906 

(( 

10  h. 29  m 

22,000  “ 

Uranus 

35,000 

30,687 

1,822 

u 

Unknown 

15,000  “ 

Neptune 

38,000 

60,127 

2,853 

u 

a 

12,000  “ 

Moon.  . . 

2,180 

Dist.  from  Earth,  238,000  miles. 

2,280  “ 

Sun  .... 

887,000 

1,400,000  times  larger 

than  Earth 

Unknown. 

G3 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE, 


The  circumference  of  the  earth  is  measured  in  this  way  : Sup- 
pose two  astronomers,  A and  B,  stationed  on  the  same  meridian, 
a certain  distance  apart,  and  with  accurate  instruments,  should 
make  careful  observations  on  a certain  star  at  the  moment  it 
crossed  the  meridian  ; and  A should  find  tlie  star  i6  degrees  south 
of  the  zenith,  and  B,  who  is  exactly  415  miles  south  of  A,  should 
find  it  only  10  degrees  south  of  the  zenith  ; there  would  then  be 
a difference  of  6 degrees  between  the  two  places  ; and  as  they 
are  415  miles  apart,  one  degree  must  be  i-6th  of  415  or  69  i-6th 
miles.  * 

Now,  if  I degree,  which  is  the  360th  part  of  the  earth’s  cir- 
cumference,  is  69  i-6th  miles,  the  whole  circumference  must  be 
360  times  69  I -6th,  or  24,900  miles. 

It  is  in  this  manner  that  the  earth’s  magnitude  is  computed 
very  accurately. 


The  Nebular  Hypothesis,  now  generally  accepted  by 
scientists  as  explaining,  as  far  as  possible  by  human  conception, 
the  genesis  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  was  first  suggested  by  Her- 
schel,  and  developed  by  Laplace.  It  assumes  that  the  solar  sys- 
tem was  once  an  enormous  mass  of  gaseous  substance.  Rapid 
rotation  being  set  up  in  this  gaseous  mass,  it  took  the  form  of  a 
disc,  and  at  last,  centrifugal  force  overcoming  cohesion,  whole 
rings  and  fragments  flew  off  from  this  disc,  and  by  centripetal 
force  contracted  into  spheroid  masses.  As  in  the  original  mass, 
the  velocity  of  the  outer  circle  of  each  body  thrown  off  is  greater 
than  the  inner  circle,  and  this  causes  each  spheroid  to  revolve  on 
its  own  axis.  Tliis  process  goes  on,  and  the  central  mass  con- 
tinues to  cool  and  shrink,  until  we  have  at  last  a central  body 
with  a number  of  smaller  spheroidal  bodies  revolving  around  it 
in  orbits  the  smaller  the  nearer  they  are  to  the  central  orb. 
Certain  points  are  assumed  in  this  hypothesis  to  explain  the  dis- 
tribution of  matter  in  our  solar  system.  It  js  assumed  that  in  the 
throwing  off  of  great  masses  from  the  central  disk,  immense  quan- 
tities of  minute  particles  were  also  thrown,  which  continued  to 
revolve,  in  the  same  plane  with  the  large  mass,  around  the  center 
body.  By  slow  degrees  these  minute  atoms,  by  the  law  of  gravi- 
tation, were  aggregated  into  the  mass  nearest  to  them.  These 
subordinate  aggregations  would  form  with  most  difflculty  nearest 
the  large  central  mass,  because  of  the  superior  attractive  force  of 
the  latter,  wherefore  the  interior  planets — Mercury,  Venus,  the 
Earth,  Mars — are  smaller  than  the  two  great  orbs  in  the  zone  be- 
yond them.  These  two  enormous  planets,  Jupiter  and  Saturn, 
occupy  the  space  where  conditions  are  most  favorable  to  subor- 
dinate aggregations,  but,  beyond  them,  the  gravity  of  aggregat- 
ing material  becomes  reduced,  and  so  the  planets  found  in  the 

(14 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 


outer  zone,  Uranus  and  Neptune,  are  smaller  than  the  planets  of 
the  middle  zone.  

Our  Globe  and  Its  Inhabitants. 

The  three  primary  divisions  of  man,  as  indicated  by  Latham, 
are  the  Indo-European,  the  Mongolian,  and  the  African. 

I.  The  Indo-European  or  Caucasic  race  originally  extended  from  India  across 
Europe,  and  increasing  ever  in  civilization  and  intellectual  power  from  age  to  age, 
has  become  the  dominant  one  in  the  world,  extending  its  influence  to  every  part  ol 
the  earth,  supplanting  many  inferior  races,  and  repeopling  wide  areas,  as  in  America 
and  Australia, 

The  Caucasic  race  comprises  two  principal  branches — the  Aryan  and  the  Semitic. 
A third  branch,  according  to  M.  de  Qualrefages,  includes  the  Caucasians  proper, 
Euscarians  (Basques),  and  others. 

Most  of  the  inhabitants  of  Europe  belong  to  the  Aryan  Family  they  are  arranged 
in  the  following  groups  : 

1.  The  Keltic,  in  the  N.  W.,  comprising  the  Welsh,  Gaels,  Erse,  Manx,  and 
Armoricans. 

2.  The  Italic,  chiefly  in  the  S.  W.  and  S.,  comprising  the  Italians  and  other  Ro- 
mance nations — French,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Roumanesch,  and  Roumanians. 

3.  The  Thraco-Hellenic,  in  the  S.  E.,  Greeks  and  Albanians. 

4.  The  Teutonic,  in  the  N.  N.  W.,  and  center,  comprising  the  Germans,  Scandi- 
navians, Danes,  Icelanders,  Dutch,  Flemings,  English. 

5.  The  Lithuanian,  S.  E.  of  the  Baltic. 

6.  The  Slavonic,  in  the  E.,  comprising  the  Russians,  Poles,  Tsekhs,  Serbs,  Croats^ 
Bulgarians,  etc. 

The  Indo-European  or  Caucasic  race  in  Asia  comprises  the  Hindus,  Baluchis. 
Afghans,  Iranians  (Persia),  Galchas'(Zarafshan),  and  the  Semitic  tribes  of  Armenia, 
Syria,  Arabia,  etc. 

II.  The  Mongolian  is  divisible  into  three  branches,  according  to  geographical 
position,  which  again  form  numerous  smaller  families. 

1.  The  Asiatic,  comprising  the  Mongolians  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  India,  and 
Indo-China  ; the  Kalmucks,  adjoining  the  Turks,  who  extend  from  Southern  Europe 
far  into  Central  Asia;  The  Magyars  of  Hungary;  the  Yakuts  and  Samoeids  (o< 
Samoyedes)  of  Siberia ; with  the  Lapps,  Finns,  and  various  tribes  of  East  Europe. 

2.  The  Oceanic  Mongolians  are  composed  of  two  classes.  I.  The  black-skinned^ 
found  in  New  Guinea,  Australia,  Tasmania,  and  the  islands  between  New  Zealand 
and  New  Caledonia.  II.  The  yellow,  olive  or  brown  race,  occupying  New  Zea- 
land, the  Malay  Peninsula,  Sumatra,  Borneo,  Java,  Moluccas,  Philippines,  Mada- 
gascar, etc. 

3.  The  American  Mongolians  comprise  a large  number  of  tribes,  the  chief  of  which 
in  North  America  are— the  Athabaskans,  Algonkins,  Sioux,  Paducas,  and  Mexicans. 
In  South  America  the  Quichuas,  Chilians,  and  Patagonians  extend  along  the  west 
coast.  The  Caribs,  Maypures,  Brazilians,  Moxos,  and  Chiquitos  occupy  the  north, 
east,  and  center  of  the  continent.  The  Eskimos  form  a connecting  link  between  the 
Asiatic  and  American  branches  of  this  family. 

III.  The  African,  forming  the  third  great  division  of  the  human  race,  is  exhibited 
in  its  purest  form  by  the  natives  of  Western  Africa.  The  Negroes  occupy  the  whole 
central  portion  of  the  country  from  Cape  Verd  on  the  west  to  Khartoom  on  the  east, 
and  south  to  the  Congo.  South  of  the  Negros  are  the  Bantus  (including  the  Kafirs), 
inhabiting  the  greater  part  of  Africa  between  the  4th  parallel  of  N.  lat.  and  the 
Cape.  In  the  S.  W.  are  the  Hottentots.  Certain  dwarfish  tribes  are  found  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  continent,  as  the  Bushmen  of  the  Kalahari  Desert,  the  Obongo  ol 
the  Ogowe  basin,  and  others.  The  Fulas  and  Nubas  occupy  parts  of  the  Soudan  ; 
the  former,  in  the  N.  W.,  extend  from  the  Senegal  and  Niger  towards  Lake  Tchad  ; 
the  latter  are  found  in  Nubia,  Kordofan,  Darfur,  etc.  The  Gallas,  Copts,  Somali, 
of  the  Sahara,  Egypt,  and  East  Africa  ; the  Abyssinians  ; and  the  Berbers,  Kabyles, 
Tuareks  and  other  tribes  of  North  Africa,  belong  to  the  Hamitic  race,  which  is 
closely  allied  to  the  Semitic  race.  The  latter  is  represented  by  the  Arabs  of  the  N. 
coast,  and  of  the  Arabian  Peninsula,  and  by  the  Tigres  and  other  tribes  or  AbyssinU. 

65 


“The  New  World,”  as  the  great  continents  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere  are  called,  was  first  opened  to  Christian  civ- 
ilization by  the  discovery  of  Columbus  in  1492.  The  various  coun- 
tries are  all  concisely  described  elsewhere.  Area  of  North  Amer- 
ica, 8,075,000  sq.  miles;  South  America,  7, 535, 000  sq.  miles.  The 
entire  population  in  1880  was  about  105,000,000. 


ONTARIO  is  the  most  important  province  of  Canada. 

Principal  products:  grain,  fruit,  lumber,  petroleum,  copper  and 
iron.  Its  population,  largely  of  British  descent,  is  one-third  of  the 
whole  Dominion.  Toronto,  the  capital,  is  the  manufacturing  and 
educational  center. 


(i7 


THE  WORLD’S  PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES, 


Countries. 


China 

British  Empire 

Russian  Empire. 

France  and  Colonies 

United  States 

German  Empire. 

Austro-Hung.  Empire... 

J apan 

Holland  and  Colonies. . . 

Turkish  Empire. 

Italy. 

Spain  and  Colonies. 

Sokoto. 

Corea 

Brazil 

Mexico 

Congo  Free  State 

Persia 

Portugal  and  Colonies. . . 

Egypt! 

Sweden  and  Norway. ... 

Morocco 

' Belgium. 

Siam 

Roumaniat 

Colombia 

Afghanistan. 

Argentine  Republic 

Madagascar 

Abyssinia 

Saxonyt 

Peru. 

Switzerland 

Bolivia 

Bokhara 

Venezuela 

Chili 

Denmark 

Bulgaria! 

Greece 

Wurtembergi 

Servia 

Oman 

Guatemala 

Ecuador 

Tripoli! 

Transvaal 

Salvador. 

Uruguay 

Paraguay 

Honduras 

Nicaragua 

Dominican  Republic. . . . 

Montenegro. 

Costa  Rica.. 

Orange  Free  State 

Hayti. 

Hawaii 


Sq.  Miles. 

Capitals.  < 

4,469,200 

Pekin 

9,079,711 

London ! 

8,644,100 

St.  Petersburg. 

970,477 

Paris 

3,6O2y09O 

Washington 

212,028 

Berlin 

261,591 

Vienna 

147,669 

Tokio. 

778,187 

The  Hague 

1,731,280 

Constantinople 

111,410 

Rome 

361,953 

Madrid. 

178,000 

Sokoto - 

91,430 

Seul 

3,219,000 

Rio  de  Janeiro 

751,177 

Mexico.. 

636,000 

Teheran 

240,691 

Lisbon 

494.000 

Cairo. 

295,714 

Stockholm 

314,000 

11,373 

Fez 

Brussels 

280,550 

Bangkok 

46,314 

Bucharest 

331,420 

Bogota. 

279.000 

Cabul 

609,386 

Buenos  Ayres 

228,570 

129,000 

5,789 

Antananarivo. 

Dresden 

405,040 

Lima 

15,981 

Berne 

481,600 

La  Paz. 

92,300 

Samarcand 

666,159 

Caracas 

307,525 

Santiago 

14.842 

Copenhagen  

24,700 

Sofia 

24.977 

Athens 

7,531 

Stuttgart 

18.757 

Belgrade 

81.000 

Muscat 

46.774 

New  Guatemala 

248,370 

Quito 

399,000 

Tripoli 

110,193 

Pretoria 

7,228 

San  Salvador 

72,112 

Montevideo 

92,000 

Asuncion 

42,658 

Tegucigalpa 

51,660 

Managua 

20,596 

San  Domingo 

3,486 

Cetigno 

19,985 

San  Jose 

41,484 

Bloemfontein 

29,830 

Port-au-Prince 

6,587 

Honolulu 

Governm’t. 


Abs.  Desp 

Lim.  Mon 
Abs.  Mon 
Republic 
Republic 
Lim.  Mon 
Lim.  Mon 
Lim  Mon 
Lim.  Mon 
Abs.  Mon 
Lim.  Mon 
Lim.  Mon 
Abs.  Desp 
Abs  Desp 
Lim.  Mon 
Republic 
Free, State 
Abs.  Desp 
Lim  Mon 
Abs.  Mon 
Lim.  Mon 
Abs.  Desp 
Lim.  Mon 
Abs.  Desp 
Lim.  Mon 
Republic 
Abs.  Desp 
Republic 
Abs.  Desp 
Abs.  Desp 
Lim.  Mon 
Republic 
Republic 
Republic 
.Abs  Desp 
F epublic 
Republic 
n.  Mon 
Lim.  Mon 
Lim.  Mon 
Lim.  Mon 
Lim.  Mon 
Abs.  Mon 
Republic 
Republic 
Abs  Mon 
Republic 
Republic 
Republic 
Republic 
Republic 
Republic 
Republic 
Abs.  Mon 
Republic 
Republic 
Republic 
Lim.  Mon 


403,000,000 

320.676.000 

102.970.000 
63,672.048 

*^62, 622, 250 
46,852,450 
39,206,052 
36,700,118 
33,042,238 
32,000,000 
29,699,785 
24,873,621 
12,600,000 

10.519.000 

10.200.000 
10,007,000 

8,000,000 
7,653,600 
• 7,249,050 
6,806,381 
6,554,448 

6.500.000 
5,853,278 

5.700.000 

5.376.000 
4,000,000 

4.000. 000 

3.026.000 

3.000. 000 

3.000. 000 
2,972,805 

2.970.000 
2,906,752 

2.325.000 
2;i30,000 
2,121,988 
2,115,340 
2,045,179 
2,007.919 
1,979,453 
1,971,118 

1.820.000 
1,600,000 
1,278,311 

1.146.000 

1.010.000 
800,000 
,554,(!00 
520,536 

476.000 

458.000 

400.000 

300.000 
245,380 

180.000 
133,518 

93,200 

66,097 


* Official  census,  1890. 
eluded  in  German  Empire. 


68 


EUROPE. 

According  to  the  latest  census  of  its  various  states,  the  popula- 
tion of  Europe  amounts  to  340,000,000,  or  one-fourth  of  the 
entire  population  of  the  world. 

Religion — Christians,  328,000,000  (Roman  Catholics,  160,- 
000,000 ; Protestants,  85,000,000 ; Greek  Church,  83,000,000). 
Mohammedans,  6,000,000  ; Jews,  5,700,000  ; Heathen,  300,000. 

Climate — Mean  annual  temperature  and  rainfall  : Mediter- 
ranean countries,  59^-66®  F.,  23-43  inches ; Atlantic  coasts, 
37^-59°  F.,  19-118  inches;  Baltic  district,  37^-50^  F.,  15-23 
inches  ; Black  Sea  district,  41O-53O  F.,  7-19  inches  ; Subarctic 
Europe,  19O-32O  F. 

THE  BRITISH  ISLES. — The  British  Isles  comprise  about 
500  islands,  of  which  one-half  are  inhabited.  Religion — Church 
of  England  (Episcopal),  about  14,000,000;  Church  of  Scotland 
(Presbyterian),  about  1,400,000  ; Roman  Catholics,  about  6,000,- 
000;  Dissenters,  6,000,000  ; Jews,  60,000.  Government — Heredi- 
tary limited  Monarchy.  Executive,  the  Sovereign.  Legislative, 
the  Sovereign,  the  Hoiise  of  Lords,  composed  of  4 Royal  Princes, 
2 Archbishops,  22  Dukes,  19  Marquises,  114  Earls,  28  Viscounts, 
24  Bishops,  286  Barons,  16  Scottish  Representative  Peers,  and  28 
Irish  Representative  Peers  ; i of  the  former  and  2 of  the  latter 
are  Peers  of  England.  Total,  540.  And  lastly,  the  House  of 
Commons,  composed  of  670  members,  elected  every  Parliament — 
465  for  England,  30  for  Wales,  72  for  Scotland,  and  103  for  Ire- 
land. 

ENGLAND  AND  WALES  form  the  southern  and  larger  part 
of  Great  Britain.  State  Religion,  Protestant  Episcopal,  13,- 
500,000  ; Dissenters,  12,500,000  (Methodists  have  13,270  chapels  ; 
Independents,  2,603  ; Baptists,  2,243).  Roman  Catholics,  1,058,- 
000 ; Jews,  60,000.  There  are  5 universities  (Oxford,  3,090 
students;  Cambridge,  2,894;  Victoria,  1,310;  Durham,  181  ; 
and  London);  13  university  colleges  with  6,800  students  ; 9 “ great 
public  schools  ” with  3,940  pupils  ; a large  number  of  private  and 
higher  class  schools  ; and  19,022  elementary  schools  attended  by 
4>50S.825  pupils. 

In  England  80  per  cent,  of  the  whole  area  is  productive;  in 
Wales,  60  per  cent.  Cereal  crops  occupy  a fourth  of  the  pro- 
ductive area  of  England,  and  a sixth  in  Wales.  But  manufac- 
tures, mining,  and  trade  entirely  outstrip  agricultural  industry. 
Minerals — Coal,  1886,  137,039,441  tons  annually,  iron,  lead,  tin, 
copper,  zinc,  slate,  salt,  and  shale.  Factories — Cotton,  2,481 
(465,654  employes);  woollen,  1,503  (108,634);  silk,  681  (40,134). 
Total  number  of  textile  factories,  6,359,  Employes,  814,474. 

SCOTLAND  forms  the  northern  and  smaller  part  of  Great 
Britain.  Religion — Established  Church  of  Scotland,  579,043 

60 


QUEBEC  was  originally  se-ttled  by  the  French,  and  its 
present  population  is  largely  composed  of  descendants  of  the  voy- 
agers, The  capital,  Quebec,  is  the  oldest  city  in  the  Dominion. 
Its  fortifications,  when  taken  by  Gen.  ^Volfe,  were  considered, 
next  to  Gibraltar,  the  strongest  in  the  world.  The  metropolis, 
Montreal,  is  notCil  lor  its  churches. 


70 


MANITOBA,  a province  of  Canada,  is  a great  wheat-growing 
country,  this  cereal  ripening  in  no  days.  Furs  are  also  a leading 
product.  The  first  settlers  (1731)  were  French,  and  English  traders 
first  made  their  appearance  in  1767.  Climate  very  severe  in 
winter,  but  occasionally  hot  in  summer.  Winnipeg  is  the  capital- 


71 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 


members  ; Free  Church  of  Scotland,  333,098  members;  United 
Presbyterian,  182,170  members;  Episcopal,  76,939;  Roman 
Catholic,  320,000.  Education — There  are  4 universities  (Aber- 
deen, 830  students  ; Edinburgh,  3,164  ; Glasgow,  2,231  ; St.  An- 
drews, 212);  I college  (Dundee,  332  students);  nearly  300  higher 
class  schools  with  about  70,000  pupils  ; and  3,092  elementary 
schools  with  (1886)  615,498  scholars.  Government  grant  (1887), 

£445.883- 

The  total  area  of  Scotland  is  19,084,659  acres,  and.  out  of  this 
number  14,613,446  acres  consist  of  woods,  bog  and  waste  land, 
water,  and  hill-land.  Only  25  per  cent,  of  the  whole  area  is  pro- 
ductive. Cereal  crops  occupy  a fourth  of  the  productive  area, 
and  agriculture  is  limited  to  the  plains  and  valleys  of  the  east 
and  south.  Minerals — Coal  (20,373,478  tons  in  1886),  iron,  lead, 
slate,  etc.  Factories — Cotton,  147  (37,167  employes);  woolen, 
274  (27,546);  flax,  152  (39,086);  jute,  105  (36,269).  Total  number 
of  textile  factories,  776  with  152,279  employes. 

IRELAND  has  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  all  sides  except  the  east, 
where  it  is  separated  from  Great  Britain  by  St.  George’s  Chan- 
nel, the  Irish  Sea,  and  North  Channel.  Religion — Roman 
Catholics,  3,960,891  ; Protestant  Episcopalians,  620,000  ; Presby- 
terians, 470,734;  Methodists,  48,839;  Jews,  472.  Education — 
There  are  2 universities  (Dublin,  1,258  students,  and  the  Royal 
University);  3 Queen’s  Colleges,  Belfast  (400),  Cork  (249),  Gal- 
way (94);  1,500  superior  schools  with  200,000  pupils;  8,024  ele- 
mentary schools  (1886)  with  an  average  attendance  of  490,484, 
Government  grant  (1887)  £888,966. 

Ireland  is  essentially  an  agricultural  country  ; the  mineral  re- 
sources are  small,  and  mining  is  not  prosecuted  with  vigor.  Of 
the  whole  area,  74  per  cent,  is  productive,  and  cereal  ci'ops  oc- 
cupy one-ninth  of  this.  Minerals — Coal  is  extensively  dis- 
tributed ; but  from  its  inferior  quality  and  its  not  being  found 
near  iron,  it  is  not  much  wrought — only  105,563  tons  having  been 
produced  in  1886.  Iron  ore  is  common,  but  smelting  cannot  be 
carried  on  for  want  of  fuel.  Manufactures — The  chief  manu- 
facture is  linen,  which  is  mostly  confined  to  Ulster.  Factories — • 
Linen,  166  (61,749  employes);  woolen,  141  (3,136);  cotton,  7 
(1,248),  Total  number  of  textile  factories,  330  with  68,158  em- 
ployes. 

SPAIN  is  bounded  on  the  north  bj^  France  and  the  Bay  of 
Biscay  ; on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  Portugal;  and  on 
the  south  and  east  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Religion — Roman 
Catholic,  except  34,000  (6,654  Protestants).  Government — Con- 
stitutional monarchy.  Executive,  the  King.  Legislative,  the 
King,  and  Cortes,  composed  of  the  Senate  with  360  members, 
and  Congress  of  431  members.  Education — 30,000  elementary 

72 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 


schools  with  1,700,000  pupils  ; 10  universities  with  15,700  students. 

PORTUGAL. — On  the  east  and  north  Portugal  is  bounded  by 
Spain,^and  on  the  west  and  south  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Re- 
ligion— Roman  Catholic;  500  Protestants.  Government — Hered- 
itary limited  monarchy.  Executive,  the  King  and  Cabinet. 
Legislative,  the  Cortes,  composed  of  House  of  Peers  with  162 
members,  and  House  of  Commons  with  149  members.  Educa- 
tion— 5,500  schools  with  240,000  pupils ; i university  with  670 
students. 

FRANCE  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  English  Channel ; 
on  the  west  by  the  Bay  of  Biscay  ; on  the  south  by  Spain  and  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  ; and  on  the  east  by  Belgium,  Germanj^, 
Switzerland,  and  Italy.  Religion — Roman  Catholic.  About 
693,000  Protestants.  Government — Republican.  Executive,  the 
President  of  the  Republic.  Legislative,  the  Senate  and  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  The  former  composed  of  300  members, 
and  the  later  of  584  members.  Education  is  entirely  under  Gov- 
ernment supervision.  There  are  16  “ facultes  des  lettres  et  des 
sciences,”  14  “ facultes  de  droit,”  and  6 “ facultes  de  medecine,” 
with  (1884)  12,195  students.  Elementary  and  secondary  schools, 
86,000,  with  over  6,000,000  pupils. 

BELGIUM.  — On  the  west  Belgium  is  bounded  by  the  North 
Sea  ; on  the  north  by  the  Netherlands  ; on  the  east  by  Holland; 
and  on  the  south  by  France.  Religion — The  Roman  Catholic 
religion  is  professed  by  nearly  the  entire  population,  though  full 
liberty  and  social  equality  is  granted  to  all  confessions.  There 
are  15,000  Protestants,  and  3,000  Jews.  Government — Constitu- 
tional and  hereditary  monarchy.  Executive,  the  King  and 
ministry.  Legislative,  vested  in  the  King,  the  Chamber  of  Rep- 
resentatives, and  the  Senate.  The  Chamber  consists  of  138 
members,  and  the  Senate  of  69.  Education — There  are  4 uni- 
versities (Brussels,  Ghent,  Liege,  and  Louvain),  attended  in 
1886-87  by  4,990  students  ; 150  higher  class  schools  with  27,675 
pupils  ; and  6,350  primary  and  infant  schools  with  673,938  pupils 
in  1885. 

THE  NETHERLANDS  are  bounded  on  the  west  and  north  by 
the  North  Sea  ; on  the  south  by  Belgium  ; and  on  the  east  by 
Germany.  Religion — Protestants,  2,469,814  ; Roman  Catholic, 
1,439,137;  Jews,  81,693.  Government — Hereditary  and  consti- 
tutional monarchy.  Executive,  the  King.  Legislative,  the  King 
and  Parliament  or  States-General,  composed  of  the  First  Cham- 
ber with  50  members,  and  the  Second  Chamber  with  100.  Edu- 
cation— There  are  4 universities  (Leyden,  Groningen,  Utrecht, 
and  Amsterdam),  attended  by  (1886)  2,110  students  ; 1,278  pri- 
vate and  higher  class  schools,  with  (1885)  174,604  scholars  ; 2,923 

73 


ALASKA  was  purchased  from  Russia  in  1867  for  $7,500,000,  and 
the  United  States  Government  has  already  regained  that  sum  from 
the  seal  fisheries.  Principal  industries,  fishing,  canning,  trapping 
and  mining.  The  population  is  largely  Indian,  only  about  2,000 
being  whites.  The  climate  of  Alaska  is  modified  by  the  Pacific 
fiulf  Stream  and  long  summer  days.  Winter  temperature  at  Sitka 
averages  about  the  sanie  as  Washington,  D.  C. 


74 


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f^ntr^ 


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Blountsville  P 
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X Abbeville  o 
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immocY  /°Ai^alui 
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• Miuette, 

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|mo  Daphne 


VMAP  OF 
ALABAMA 


Area  sq.miles  _51,540 


ALABAMA  ranks  fourth  in  cotton,  fifth  in  mules  and  molasses 
sixth  in  sugar,  seventh  in  rice  and  iron  ore,  tenth  in  bituminou* 
coal, seventeenth  in  population.  First  settlement  by  the  French  iv. 
Mobile,  1711.  Admitted  to  the  Union  i8iq. 


75 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 


public  elementary  schools,  with  440,851  pupils;  and  1,017  public 
and  private  infant  schools,  with  107,563  pupils. 

GRAND  DUCHY  OF  LUXEMBURG. 

Religion — All  Roman  Catholic,  with  exception  of  2,200.  Gov- 
ernment— In  1867  the  Duchy  was  proclaimed  neutral  territory, 
the  King  of  the  Netherlands  being  declared  the  Grand  Duke  ; 
but  in  all  other  respects  it  is  independently  administered. 

SWITZERLAND  is  the  most  mountainous  country  in  Europe, 
the  .immense  mass  of  Mt.  St.  Gothard  forming  the  center  or 
nucleus  of  a system  of  mountains,  covered  with  perennial  snow, 
the  peaks  of  which  rise  from  5,000  to  15,000  feet  above  sea  level. 
The  chief  passes  are  St.  Bernard,  8,120  feet ; Cervin,  10,938  feet ; 
Simplon,  6,595  Gothard,  6,936  feet ; Splugen,  6,945 

feet.  Religion — 58  per  cent.  Protestants  ; 41  per  cent.  Roman 
Catholics.  Government — Federal  Republic  of  22  Cantons.  Ex- 
ecutive, Federal  Council  of  7,  including  the  President.  Legisla- 
tive, the  State  Council  of  44  members,  and  the  National  Council 
ot  145  Representatives.  Education — Compulsory.  There  are  4 
universities  (Basel,  Bern,  Zurich,  and  Geneva),  with  1,500 
students,  and  5,500  elementary  and  secondary  schools  with 
500,000  pupils. 

GERMANY. — On  the  north  Germany  is  bounded  by  the  North 
Sea,  Denmark,  and  the  Baltic  Sea ; on  the  east  by  Russia  ; on 
the  south  by  Austria  and  Switzerland  ; and  on  the  west  by 
France,  Belgium,  and  the  Netherlands.  Religion — 1880,  Pro- 
testants, 28,330,970  ; Roman  Catholics,  16,232,600  ; Jews,  561,610. 
Government — The  26  States  which  comprise  the  German  Empire 
are  united  into  a Confederation.  The  supreme  direction  of  the 
military  and  political  affairs  is  vested  in  the  King  of  Prussia, 
controlled  by  the  Bundesrath,  or  Federal  Council,  consisting  of 
62  members  appointed  by  the  individual  States  of  the  Empire, 
and  the  Reichstag,  or  Diet  of  the  Realm, .composed  of  397  mem- 
bers elected  by  universal  suffrage.  Education — There  are  21 
universities,  attended  in  1887  by  27,784  students;  57,000  ele- 
mentary schools  with  7,100,000  pupils  ; and  1,484  higher  class 
and  technical  schools  with  266,228  pupils. 

NORWAY  AND  SWEDEN.— These  two  kingdoms,  forming 
the  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  are  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Arctic  Ocean  ; on  the*east  by  Russia,  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  and 
the  Baltic  Sea  ; on  the  south  by  the  Baltic  Sea,  the  Sound,  Cat- 
tegat,  and  Skager  Rack  ; and  on  the  west  bv  the  Atlantic  Ocean 

NORWAY. 

Religion-— Lutheran  Protestant  with  the  exception  of  7,238. 
Government— Norway  and  Sweden  together  form  an  hereditary 

76 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 


and  limited  monarchy,  the  King  of  Sweden  being  also  King  of 
Norway,  but  each  country  having  a separate  legislative  govern- 
ment* Executive,  the  King.  Legislative,  the  Storthing,  consist- 
ing of  the  Lagthing  of  28  members,  and  the  Odelsthing  of  86 
members.  Education — There  are  6,600  elementary  schools  with 

279.000  pupils  ; and  i university  with  1,350  students. 

SWEDEN. 

Religion — Lutheran  Protestant,  with  21,000  exceptions.  Gov- 
ernment— Executive,  the  King.  Legislative,  the  Diet,  composed 
of  two  Chambers,  the  First  with  142  members,  and  the  Second 
with  214  members.  Education — There  are  2 universities  with 
2,500  students,  and  10,000  elementary  and  other  schools  with 

700.000  pupils. 

AUSTRO-HUNGARY. — Austria  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Poland,  Silesia,  And  Saxony ; on  the  west  by  Bavaria  and 
Switzerland  ; on  the  south  by  Venetia,  the  Adriatic  and  the 
Balkan  States  ; and  on  the  east  by  Moldavia  and  West  Russia. 
Religion — Roman  Catholics,  25,598,000  ; Protestants,  3,630,000  ; 
Jews,  1,646,000.  Government — Austria  and  Hungarj^  form  a 
hereditary  dual-monarchy,  each  country  having  its  own  Parlia- 
ment, Ministry,  and  Administration.  They  are  both  united 
under  a hereditary  sovereign,  the  Emperor  of  Austria  being  also 
King  of  Hungary,  and  a controlling  body  known  as  the  “ Dele- 
gations.” Education — Austria  has  8 universities,  attended  in 
1887  by  14,540  students;  1,824  higher  class  schools  with  180,162 
pupils ; and  17,419  elementary  schools  with  2,781,220  pupils. 
Hungary  has  2 universities,  attended  in  1887  by  4,169  students  ; 
374  higher  class  schools  with  (1885)  49)4^9  p^ipii^  j 
elementary  schools  with  1,841,668  pupils. 

ITALY  . — The  Peninsula  of  Italy  projects  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  which  forms  its  southern  boundary.  On  the  north 
it  is  bounded  by  Austria  and  Switzerland  ; on  the  west  by  France 
and  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea  ; and  on  the  east  by  the  Adriatic  Sea. 
Religion — Roman  Catholic,  but  about  62,000  Protestants  and 

38.000  Jews.  Government — Executive,  the  King.  Legislative, 
the  King  and  Parliament,  consisting  of  two  Chambers — the  Sen- 
ate, consisting  of  the  Royal  Princes  and  any  number  of  dis- 
tinguished men  above  40  years  of  age  who  are  nominated  by  the 
King.  The  Second  Chamber,  that  of  the  Deputies,  consists  of 
508  members  elected  by  the  people.  Education — Italy  had  (1884) 
21  universities  with  13,334  students. 

DENMARK.  — On  the  west  Denmark  is  bounded  by  the  North 
Sea  ; on  the  northwest  by  the  Skager  Rack  ; on  the  east  by  the 
Cattegat,  the  Sound,  and  the  Baltic  ; and  on  the  south  by  the 
Baltic  and  the  German  province  of  Schleswig.  Religion — The 


ARIZONA  ranks  fifth  in  silver,  ninth  in  gold,  eighth  in  sheep, 
forty-first  in  miles  of  railway,  forty-eighth  in  population.  First 
explored  by  the  Spaniards  in  1526;  organized  as  a territory,  1863. 


ARKANSAS  ranks  fifth  among  the  States  in  cotton,  ninth  in 
mules,  twenty-fifth  in  population.  First  settlement  by  the  French 
at  Arkansas  Post,  1685.  Admitted  to  the  Union  in  1836. 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 

State  religion  is  Lutheran,  though  complete  toleration  is  ex- 
tended to  every  sect.  In  1880  only  17,526  persons  did  not  belong 
to  the  Lutheran  Church.  Of  this  number  3,946  were  Jews  and 
2,985  Roman  Catholics.  Government — Hereditary  Limited 
Monarchy.  Executive,  the  King  and  Ministry.  Legislative, 
the  Rigsdag,  or  Diet,  composed  of  the  Landsthing,  or  Upper 
House,  with  66  members,  and  the  Folkething,  or  House  of  Com- 
mons, with  102  members.  Education — Elementary  education  is 
compulsory.  The  university  at  Copenhagen  has  about  1,300 
students.  There  are  45  colleges  and  higher  schools,  and  2,940 
parochial  schools  with  231,935  pupils. 

EUROPEAN  RUSSIA  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Siberia  and 
the  Caspian  Sea ; on  the  south  by  Persia,  the  Black  Sea,  and 
Turkey  ; on  the  west  by  Austria,  Germany,  the  Baltic  Sea,  and 
Sweden  ; and  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Religion — The 
established  religion  is  the  Russo-Greek.  Protestants,  4,766,000  ; 
Roman  Catholics,  8,910,000.  Government^ — Absolute  hereditary 
monarchy.  Executive  and  legislative,  the  Czar.  Administra- 
tive entrusted  to  four  Councils,  the  Council  of  the  Empire,  the 
Ruling  Senate,  the  Holy  Synod,  and  the  Committee  of  Ministers. 
Finland  has  a partly  independent  government — Grand  I)uke, 
the  Czar.  Education — Including  Finland,  there  are — 9 uni- 
versities with  14,000  students,  and  38,000  schools  with  2,250,000 
pupils.  In  1882  only  19  per  cent,  of  the  Russian  recruits  could 
read  and  write. 

TURKEY  IN  EUROPE.-  The  Ottoman  Empire  in  Europe 
now,  strictly  speaking,  only  comprises  the  immediate  provinces, 
the  remainder  of  its  territory  being  divided  among  the  independ- 
ent and  tributary  states  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  Religion — 
More  than  one-half  of  the  population  are  Christians,  chiefly  be- 
longing to  the  Greek  Church  ; the  remainder  consist  of  Moham- 
medans, with  a few  Jews.  Government — Absolute  monarchy. 
The  Sultan  is  ruler,  and  his  will  is  absolute,  in  so  far  as  it  is  not 
in  opposition  to  the  precepts  of  the  Koran.  The  legislative  and 
executive  authority  is  exercised,  under  the  supreme  direction  of 
the  Sultan,  by  the  Grand  Vizier,  the  head  of  the  temporal  gov- 
ernment, and  the  “ Sheik-ul-Islam,”  the  head  of  the  church. 

GREECE  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Turkey  in  Europe  ; on 
the  east  by  the  ^gean  Sea  ; on  the  south  by  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  ; and  on  the  west  by  Turkey  and  the  Ionian  Sea.  Religion — 
Greek  Orthodox  Church  with  the  exception  of  46,000.  Govern- 
ment— Limited  monarch3\  Executive,  the  King.  Legislative, 
the  Boule  (Chamber  of  Deputies)  consisting  of  150  representa- 
tives. Education — There  are  2,600  schools  attended  by  140,000 
pupils,  and  i university  with  2,400  students. 

80 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 


MALTA. — The  Maltese  group  comprises  the  islands  of  Malta, 
Gozo,  and  Comino.  Area — 119  square  miles  (Malta,  95  square 
miles).  Population — 159,231  (excluding  British  soldiers).  The 
Government  is  administered  by  a Governor,  who  is  assisted  by 
an  Executive  Council  of  6 members,  and  by  a Council  of  Gov- 
ernment, 9 official  and  8 elected  members,  of  which  the  Gov- 
ernor is  president.  The  British  garrison  consists  of  5,216  British 
soldiers. 

GIBRALTAR.  — This  celebrated  fortress,  commanding  the  en- 
trance to  the  Mediterranean,  belongs  to  Great  Britain,  and  is 
situated  on  a rocky  promontory  in  the  south  of  Spain.  Area — 
2 square  miles.  Population — 1886  (including  military),  24,139. 
The  Governor  in  command  of  the  garrison  exercises  all  the  exe- 
cutive and  legislative  authority.  The  garrison  consists  of  5,758 
British  soldiers. 

HELIGOLAND.  — Two  islands  in  the  North  Sea,  25  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe.  Area — Three-quarters  square  mile. 
Population — 1881,  2,000.  Religion — Lutheran.  Government — 
British  dependency,  with  a Governor  assisted  by  an  Executive 
Council. 

CYPRUS.  -r-An  island  situated  in  the  most  eastern  basin  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  Area — 3,584  square  miles.  Population — 
186,173.  Religion — One-fourth  Mohammedan,  the  remainder 
mainly  of  Greek  Church.  The  Government  of  Cyprus  is  admin- 
istered by  Great  Britain  on  behalf  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  the 
Legislature  consisting  of  a High  Commissioner,  who  is  also 
Commander-in-Chief,  with  a Council  of  18  members.  Six  mem- 
bers are  non-elective,  and  three  are  chosen  by  the  Mohammedan 
residents.  Annual  subsidy  payable  to  Turkey,  <£92,800.  There 
are  a number  of  schools  on  the  island  ; the  Government  grant 
in  1886-87,  inclusive  of  that  for  building  purposes,  was  £3,000. 

ICELAND. — This  island,  belonging  to  Denmark,  lies  in  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  about  600  miles  west  of  Norwaj^  and  about  250 
miles  east  of  Greenland.  Area — 39,566  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion— 72,445.  Religion — All  Protestants,  belonging  to  the  Luth 
eran  Church.  Government — The  Legislative  power  is  vested  in 
the  Althing,  consisting  of  36  members,  30  elected  by  popular 
suffrage,  and  6 nominated  by  the  King  of  Denmark.  A Minister 
for  Iceland,  nominated  by  the  King  and  responsible  to  the 
Althing,  is  at  the  head  of  the  administration  ; while  the  highest 
local  authority  is  vested  in  the  Governor,  called  Stiftamtmand, 
who  resides  at  Reykjavik.  Education — The  natives  are  distin- 
guished for  their  love  of  learning,  and,  notwithstanding  their 
poverty  and  adverse  circumstances,  it  is  rare  to  find  an  Icelander 
who  cannot  read  and  write.  There  is  a college  at  Reykjavik, 

81 


CALIFORNIA  ranks  first  in  gold,  barley  and  grape  culture, 
second  in  wool,  third  in  hops,  fifth  in  wheat,  eighth  in  silver, 
twenty-fourth  in  population.  First  settlement  by  Spaniards,  1769, 
at  San  Diego.  Admitted  to  the  Union  1850. 


82 


COLORADO  ranks  first  in  silver,  fourth  in  gold,  thirty-first  in 
population.  First  settlement,  by  Americans,  near  Denver,  about 
1850.  Organized  as  a territory  1861;  admitted  to  the  Union,  1876. 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 

attended  by  about  loo  scholars.  The  commerce  consists  in  the 
exchange  of  wool,  butter,  skins,  fish,  and  oil  for  European  manu- 
factures. 

ASIA. 

Asia  constitutes  the  eastern  and  main  part  of  the  Old 
World.  Greatest  breadth  (Cape  Chelyuskin  78^  12'  N.)  to 
Cape  Romania  (i®  10'  N.)  5,300  miles.  Greatest  length,  Cape 
Baba  (26°  3'  E.)  to  East  Cape  (169O  o'  W.)  7,000  miles.  Area— 
17,300,000  square  miles,  nearly  five  times  that  of  Europe,  or  one- 
third  of  the  land  surface  of  the  globe.  Population— According 
to  the  latest  estimates  there  are  840,000,000  inhabitants,  or  one- 
half  of  the  entire  population  of  the  world.  Religion — Christians, 

15.000. 000 ; Mohammedans,  80,000,000 ; Brahmins,  Buddhists, 
etc.,  745,000,000.  Climate— Northern  or  Siberian  Zone  has  a 
mean  annual  temperature  of  less  than  32®  F.,  Verkhoyansk  (the 
pole  of  greatest  cold),  mean  temperature,  2^  F.,  January  56^  F., 
July  59.8°  F.  Central  Zone  has  summer  and  winter  of  great 
extremes.  Southern  and  Eastern  Zones  (monsoon  region)  have 
a regular  alternation  of  seasons.  Lahore  (Panjab),  mean  tem- 
perature, 75®  F.,  January  53O  F.,  June  93^  F'. 

TURKEY  IN  ASIA,  the  western  promontory  of  Asia,  lies 
between  12^  30'  and  42^  N.  lat.,  and  26^  and  48°  E.  long.  Area 
— 680,000  square  miles.  Population — 16,174,100.  Religion — The 
prevailing  religion  is  Mohammedanism,  of  which  there  are 

12.000. 000  adherents,  while  about  3,000,000  are  nominally  Chris- 
tians, including  Greeks,  Armenians,  etc.  Government — This, 
the  greater  part  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  is  divided  for  adminis- 
trative purposes  into  24  official  provincial  governments  or  vila- 
yets. At  the  head  of  each  of  these  is  placed  a Vali  or  Gover- 
nor-General, who  represents  the  Sultan,  and  is  assisted  by  a 
provincial  council.  Education — Throughout  the  Turkish  Empire 
public  schools  have  been  long  established  in  most  considerable 
towns,  while  colleges,  with  public  libraries,  are  attached  to  the 
greater  number  of  the  principal  mosques.  But  the  instruction 
afforded  by  these  establishments  is  rather  limited. 

ARABIA. — A huge  peninsula  of  S.  W.  Asia,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Turkey  in  Asia  ; on  the  east  by  the  Persian  Gulf  and 
Gulf  of  Oman  ; on  the  south  by  the  Indian  Ocean  and  Gulf  of 
Aden  ; and  on  the  west  by  the  Red  Sea.  Total  area  of  penin- 
sula, 1,219,000  square  miles  (independent  Arabia,  966,952  square 
miles).  Population— (Estimated)  3,700,000.  ^ The  inhabitants 
are  either  Bedouins  or  “wanderers,”  or  “Hadesi,”  settled  in  towns 
and  villages.  Religion— With  the  exception  of  a few  Jews  th( 
inhabitants  are  Mohammedans.  At  no  time  has  Arabia  beei 
united  into  one  harmonious  whole,  and  at  present  large  portioiV 

Ha 


THE  WOE  LB  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 


of  its  territory  are  claimed  by  foreign  powers.  Turkey  claims 
as  part  of  its  Asiatic  dominion  the  district  of  El  Hasa  bordering 
on  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  vilaj^ets  of  Hadjaz  and  Yemen 
extending  along  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Red  Sea.  Egypt  holds 
possession  of  the  Sinai  peninsula  and  the  old  land  of  Midian 
which  extends  southward  from  the  Gulf  of  Akaba.  The  terri- 
tory belonging  to  Britain  comprises  the  fortress  of  Aden,  Perim 
Island  at  the  entrance  to  the  Red  Sea,  the  Kuria  Muria  Islands 
off  the  southeast  coast,  and  the  island  of  Kamaran  in  the  Red 
Sea.  The  remainder  of  the  country  embraces  all  the  interior 
and  the  south  and  east  coasts  between  the  Bahrein  Islands  and 
Aden.  It  is  divided  among  an  uncertain  number  of  petty  and 
independent  states,  the  chief  of  which  are  Oman  in  the  extreme 
east,  extending  inland  from  the  gulf  of  the  same  name,  with 
Muscat  for  its  capital,  and  Jebel  Shammar  and  Nejd  in  the  in- 
terior, the  capital  of  the  former  being  Hail,  and  of  the  latter 
Riad.  Hadramaut,  on  the  south  coast,  is  split  up  into  numerous 
little  states  or  principalities. 

PALESTINE. — This  interesting  region,  the  scene  of  the 
grandest  events  in  the  history  of  the  world,  is  a narrow  belt  of 
land,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  mountain  ranges  of  Lebanon 
and  Hermon  ; on  the  east  it  stretches  over  the  tableland  of  the 
Hauran  to  the  Arabian  desert  ; on  the  south  it  merges  into  the 
desert  of  Sinai ; and  on  the  west  it  is  bounded  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  Area — ii,ooo  square  miles.  Population — Estimated, 
700,000.  Religion — Mohammedan  (nearly  300,000  Christians  in 
Lebanon).  Government — Under  Turkish  rule,  for  administrative 
purposes,  Palestine  is  divided  into  the  government  of  el  Kuds 
(Jerusalem),  comprising  the  country  west  of  the  Dead  Sea  and 
the  Jordan,  as  far  north  as  about  32*^  30';  the  government  of  Jebel 
Libnan  (Lebanon),  occupied  by  the  slopes  of  that  range  on 
either  side  ; the  remainder  is  included  in  the  vilayet  of  Syria. 
One  of  the  most  striking  features  of  Palestine  is  its  natural  divi- 
sion into  four  parallel  strips — the  Coast  Plain,  the  Hill  Country, 
the  Jordan  Valley,  and  the  Eastern  Plateau.  The  Coast  Plain, 
from  10  to  20  miles  wide,  extends  without  a break  from  the 
desert  on  the  south  to  Mount  Carmel  (1810  feet)  on  the  north. 
The  Hill  Country,  commencing  south  of  the  Mediterranean, 
traverses  the  country  from  south  to  north  (Mount  Hermon,  9,400 
feet;  Mount  of  Olives,  2,683  feet).  The  Jordan  Valley  runs 
nearly  parallel  to  the  coast  from  the  base  of  Mount  Hermon 
to  the  Dead  Sea,  which  occupies  its  deepest  portion.  The  East- 
ern Plateau  has  a height  of  2,500  to  3,000  feet,  attaining  its  great- 
est altitude  in  Mount  Hor  (Jebel  Horoun),  4,580  feet. 

The  one  great  river  of  Palestine  is  the  Jordan,  which,  emerging 
from  underground  as  a full-bodied  stream  at  the  Springs  of  Has- 

85 


CONNECTICUT  ranks  first  among  the  States  in  clocks,  third  in 
silk  goods,  fourth  in  cotton  goods,  eighth  in  tobacco,  twenty-ninth 
in  population.  First  settlement,  by  English,  at  Wind.sor,  1635. 
One  of  the  thirteen  original  States. 


80 


DAKOTA  in  1880  ranked  third  in  gold,  ninth  in  silver,  twenty- 
sixth  in  miles  of  railway,  thirty-ninth  in  population.  First  settle- 
ment, by  Americans,  at  Pembina.  Organized  as  a territory  1861; 
Admitted  into  the  Union  as  two  States,  1889.  Population,  1890, 
South  Dakota,  328,808  (rank  37th);  North  Dakota,  182,719  (rank  41st). 


87 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE, 


beija,  847  feet  above  the  sea,  flows  first  through  the  Waters  of 
Meron,  then  through  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  682  feet  below  the 
Mediterranean,  from  which  it  passes  down  the  wide  valley  of  El 
Ghor,  and  finally  falls  into  the  Dead  Sea,  the  surface  of  which 
is  1,292  feet  below  the  Mediterranean. 

PERSIA  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Caspian  Sea  and 
Asiatic  Russia  ; on  the  west  by  Turkey  in  Asia  ; on  the  south 
by  the  Persian  Gulf  and  Arabian  Sea ; and  on  the  east  by  Af- 
ghanistan and  Baluchistan.  Religion — Mohammedan  with  about 

74.000  exceptions.  Government — Despotic,  the  power  of  the 
Shah  (Nasir-ed-Din,  s.  1848),  being  absolute,  in  so  far  as  it  is 
not  opposed  to  the  accepted  doctrines  of  the  Koran.  Under  him, 
the  Executive  is  carried  on  by  a Council  of  19  Ministers,  pre- 
sided over  by  a brother  of  the  Shah.  Education — There  are  a 
large  number  of  colleges  supported  by  public  funds,  and  numer- 
ous schools  for  children.  A larger  proportion  of  the  population 
of  Persia  are  possessed  of  the  rudiments  of  education  than  of  any 
other  country  in  Asia,  except  China. 

AFGHANISTAN. — A country  on  the  N.  W.  frontier  of  India., 
boundecTon  the  north  by  Turkestan  ; on  the  east  by  India  ; on 
the  south  by  Baluchistan  ; and  on  the  west  by  Persia.  Area — • 
298,235  square  miles  (inclusive  of  Kafiristan).  Population — 
4,500,000,  mainly  Mohammedans  of  the  Sunni  sect.  Govern- 
ment— Emir.  In  consequence  of  its  inaccessible  highland  tracts, 
its  numerous  races  and  their  tribal  organization,  no  civil  admin- 
istration can  be  said  to  exist  beyond  the  collection  of  the  revenue. 

BALUCHISTAN  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Afghanistan  ; 
on  the  east  by  India ; on  the  south  by  the  Arabian  Sea  ; and  on 
the  west  by  Persia.  Area — 106,635  square  miles.  Population — 

500.000  ; Mohammedans  of  Shiah  and  Sunni  sects.  Govern- 
ment— The  Khan  concluded  a treaty  in  1876  with  Britain,  by 
which  he  has  become  a feudatory  of  the  Empress  of  India.  This 
treaty  places  the  whole  country  at  the  disposal  of  the  Britisih 
Government  for  all  military  and  strategic  purposes. 

KHIVA  AND  BOKHARA.— Two  Khanates,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Sea  of  Aral  and  Russian  possessions  ; on  the  south 
by  Afghanistan  and  Russian  possessions  ; and  on  the  west  by 
the  Trans-Caspian  district ; being  separated  from  each  other  by 
the  Oxus.  Area — Khiva,  22,290  square  miles  ; Bokhara  92,168 
square  miles.  Population — Khiva,  700,000  ; Bokhara,  2,130,000. 
Religion — The  inhabitants  of  both  states  are  Mohammedans. 
Government — Bokhara,  since  the  capture  of  Samarkand  by 
Russia,  1868,  is  little  more  than  a vassal  state  of  that  country, 
though  still  allowed  to  enjoy  a certain  show  of  political  inde- 
pendence under  a Khan  or  Mir.  Khiva — The  Russians  cap- 

88 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 


iured  Khiva  in  1873,  abolished  slavery,  and  compelled  the  Khan 
to  acknowledge  himself  a vassal  of  the  Czar. 

INDIA.  — On  the  north  India  is  bounded  by  the  Himalaya 
Mountains  ; on  the  west  by  Afghanistan,  Baluchistan,  and  the 
Indian  Ocean  ; on  the  south  by  the  Indian  Ocean  ; and  on  the 
east  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  Indo-China.  Population — British 
Territory,  exclusive  of  Upper  Burma,  198,790,853  ; Native  States, 
55,150,456;  Ceylon,  2,763,984;  Nepal  and  Bhotan,  2,700,000; 
French  Possessions,  273,611;  Portuguese  Possessions,  475,172; 
total,  260,154,076.  Religion — 187,000,000  Hindus  ; 50,000,000 
Mohammedans  ; 3,500,000  Buddhists  ; 1,862,634  Christians  (Ro- 
man Catholics,  963,059  ; Protestants,  535,081;  other  sects,  364,- 
494).  Government — Executive,  the  British  Viceroy.  Adminis- 
trative, the  Secretary  of  State  for  India,  and  Council  of  15  mem- 
bers. Education,  1885 — 4 universities  (Calcutta,  Madras,  Bom- 
bay, and  the  Panjab).  The  total  number  of  educational  institu- 
tions (1885-86),  122,516,  with  3.332,851  students. 

CHINA.  — The  Chinese  Empire  is  bounded  on  the  north  and 
northwest  by  Asiatic  Russia  ; on  the  south  and  southwest  by 
British  India  ; on  the  southeast  by  Indo-China  ; and  on  the 
east  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Estimated  area  of  the  Empire, 
4,469,200  square  miles  (China  proper,  1,554,000  square  miles  ; 
Manchuria,  380,000  square  miles  ; Mongolia  and  Zungaria, 
1,452,000  square  miles  ; Thibet,  651,500  square  miles  ; Eastern 
Turkestan,  431,700.  Population — China  proper,  382,078,860; 
Manchuria,  12,000,000;  Mongolia  and  Zungaria,  2,600,000;  Thibet, 
6,000,000  ; Eastern  Turkestan,  580,000.  Religion — Bulk  of  the 
people,  Buddhists;  religion  of  the  state  and  higher  classes,  Con- 
fucianism ; 30,000,000  Mohammedans;  1,000,000  Roman  Cath- 
olics ; 50,000  Protestants.  Government — Despotic  monarchy. 
Administrative,  the  “Nei-ko”  or  Cabinet  (4  members  and  two 
assistants).  Education — In  China  proper  few  are  unable  to  read 
and  write.  Communication — 20,000  miles  of  imperial  roads,  40 
miles  of  railway  built  but  unused,  and  5,482  miles  of  telegrapIT 
wire. 

JAPAN. — Religion — Chiefly  Buddhism  (74,400  priests)  ; Shin- 
toism (15,058  priests);  Christians,  1883,  40,524;  Christianity 
gaining  rapidly.  Government — Absolute  monarchy — Emperor 
or  “Mikado.”  Education,  1884 — i university  with  i,feo students; 
29,233  elementary  schools  with  3,233,226  scholars;  and  1,636  high 
and  other  schools  with  89,879  pupils.  Railways — 370  miles  in  1887. 

BURMA. — Upper  Burma  until  recently  was  an  independent 
kingdom,  governed  by  King  Theebaw,  a despotic  monarch,  but, 
early  in  1886,  the  King  was  deposed  and  pensioned,  and  the 
country  annexed  to  the  Indian  Empire,  being  placed  under  the 

89 


DELAWARE  ranks  twenty-first  among  the  States  in  orchard 
products,  forty-second  in  population.  First  settlement,  by 
Swedes,  at  Cape  llenlopen,  in  1627.  Delaware  is  one  of  the  thirteen 
original  States. 


FLORIDA  ranks  third  among  the  States  in  sugar  and  molasses, 
sixth  in  rice,  tenth  in  cotton,  thirty-second  in  population.  First 
settlement,  by  Spaniards,  at  St.  Augustine,  1565*  Admitted  into 
the  Union  in  1845. 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE, 


Chief  Commissioner  of  Lower  Burma.  Area — 140,000  square 
miles  (exclusive  of  Burmese  Shan  States,  40,000  square  miles). 
Population — 3,500,000.  Religion — Buddhism.  Education — A 
complete  national  system  of  public  instruction  has  been  developed, 
and  a knowledge  of  letters  is  universal. 

SIAM  is  the  only  remaining  independent  native  state  in  the 
Indo-Chinese  peninsula.  Area — 280,303  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion— 5,750,000.  Government — Absolute  monarchy.  Legislat- 
ive, the  King  assisted  by  a Council  of  Ministers  and  the  Council 
of  State.  For  administrative  purposes  the  country  is  divided 
into  41  provinces  with  a Governor  at  the  head  of  each.  East  of 
Siam  the  remainder  of  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula  is  occupied 
by  the  French  colonies  and  protectorates  of  Anam,  Tongking, 
Cochin  China,  and  Cambodia.  Area — Anam,  106,290  square 
miles  ; Tongking,  35,000  square  miles  ; Cochin  China,  23,090 
square  miles  ; Cambodia,  32,380  square  miles.  Population — 
Anam,  6,000,000;  Tongking,  9,000,000;  Cochin  China  (1883), 
1,639,777  ; Cambodia,  1,500,000.  Government — By  a decree  of 
October  1887  the  French  possessions  are  placed  under  a Gover- 
nor-General, under  whom  are  2 Residents-General  for  Tongking 
and  Cambodia,  a Resident  for  Anam,  and  a Lieutenant-Gover- 
nor for  Cochin  China. 

RUSSIA  IN  ASIA  , — The  Asiatic  possessions  of  Russia  are 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean  ; on  the  east  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean  ; on  the  south  by  the  Chinese  Empire,  Bokhara, 
Afghanistan,  Persia,  and  Turkey  in  Asia  ; and  on  the  west  by 
European  Russia.  Area — 6,645,720  square  miles.  Population — 
15,865,740.  Religion — Christianity  and  Mohammedanism  pre- 
vail in  Caucasia,  while  in  Central  Asia  and  Siberia  Christianity 
is  professed  by  the  Slavs,  Buddhism,  Shamanism,  and  Moham- 
medanism by  the  native  races.  Government — For  administra- 
tive purposes  the  country  is  divided  into  five  general  govern- 
ments— Caucasus,  Turkestan,  Stepnoye,  Eastern  Siberia,  and 
Amur.  At  the  head  of  each  of  these  is  either  a Viceroy,  or  a 
Governor-General,  the  representative  of  the  Czar,  who  as  such 
has  the  supreme  control  and  direction  of  all  afiairs,  whether  civil 
or  military.  Education — In  Siberia  the  means  provided  for 
higher  education  consist  of  15  gymnasia,  2 real  schools,  and  3 
normal  schools.  Primary  education  is  in  a very  unsatisfactory 
state,  there  being  only  665  schools,  scattered  over  the  whole 
country,  with  an  attendance  of  23,470  pupils. 

OCEANIA 

Comprises  all  the  islands  and  archipelagos  in  the  Pacific  Ocean 
and  is  usually  divided  into  the  four  great  sections  of  Malaysia, 

92 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 


Micronesia,  Melanesia  or  Australasia,  and  Polynesia.  Total 
area — 4,211,093  square  miles.  Population — 39,161,370. 

I.  Malaysia  is  usually  considered  as  part  of  Asia  under  the  “ East  Indian  Archi- 
pelago,” but  here  it  is  included  with  Oceania.  Chief  islands — Sumatra,  179,290 
square  miles : population,  1884,2,948,715.  Java,  50,800  square  miles;  population, 
20,931,654.  Borneo,  284,918  square  miles;  population,  1,858,000.  Celebes,  77,179 
square  miles;  population,  933,823.  Moluccas,  20,429  square  miles;  population, 
352,580.  Philippines,  114,219  square  miles ; population,  5,636,232.  Lesser  Dutch 
Islands,  42,489  square  miles;  population,  2,000,000.  The  total  area  of  its  islands  is 
769,324  square  miles,  and  the  population  34,661,000. 

II.  Micronesia  includes  the  Caroline  and  Pelew  Islands,  1,450  square  miles; 
population,  36,000.  Mariannes,  443  square  miles ; population,  8,665.  Gilbert 
Islands,  165  square  miles ; population,  35,200.  Marshall  Islands,  154  square  miles ; 
population,  11,600.  Total  area,  1,322  square  miles  ; population,  91,465. 

III.  Melanesia  or  Australasia  comprises  the  great  islands  of  Australia,  2,948,- 
798  square  miles;  population,  1885,  2,631,553.  Tasmania,  26,215  square  miles; 
population,  137,211.  New  Zealand,  104,403  square  miles;  population,  578,482. 
Fiji  Islands,  8,048  square  miles;  population,  126,000.  New  Guinea,  311,580  square 
miles;  population,  2,500,000.  New  Caledonia  and  Loyalty  Islands,  7,644  square 
miles;  population,  60,703.  Solomon  Islands,  etc.,  23,546  square  miles;  population, 
252,350.  Total  area,  3,430,234  square  miles  ; population,  4,229,155. 

IV.  Polynesia — Chief  groups.  Friendly  Islands,  384  square  miles;  population, 
25,000.  Samoa  Islands,  1,073  square  miles ; population,  36,800.  Society  Islands, 
636  square  miles  ; population,  16,300.  Marquesas,  491  Square  miles ; population, 
5,776.  Sandwich  Islands,  6,558  square  miles;  population,  57,985.  Total  area,  10,- 
313  square  miles;  population,  179,550. 


TABLE  OF  EUROPEAN  POSSESSIONS. 


Country. 

Area  in  Square  Miles. 

Population. 

British,  - - . 

3,169,389 

3,223,041 

Dutch,  ... 

Spanish,  - . . 

718,800 

28,500,000 

116,250 

5,680,665 

German,  - - - 

88,650 

343,600 

French,  - . - 

9,104 

85,753 

Portuguese,- 

6,290 

300,000 

AUSTRALIA. — Greatest  length,  Cape  Byron  (153^  38'  E.j  to 
Steep  Point  (113°  E.),  2,400  miles.  Greatest  breadth.  Cape 
Y ork  (lo®  40'  S.)  to  Cape  Wilson  (39^^  10'  S.)  2,000  miles.  Area 
— 2,948,798  square  miles  (Victoria,  87,884  square  miles  ; New 
South  Wales,  310,700  square  miles  ; Queensland,  668,224  square 
miles;  South  Australia,  903,690  square  miles;  West  Australia, 
978,300  square  miles).  The  surface  is  for  the  most  part  a level 
plateau,  with  a mean  elevation  of  1,180  feet  above  sea  level. 
A large  part  of  the  interior,  particularly  in  the  west,  consists  of 
sandy  and  stony  desert.^  Tl\e  mountainous  region  is  almost  ex-’ 
clusively  confined  to  the  eastern  and  southeastern  coasts,  where, 
at  an  average  distance  of  sixty  miles.,  a belt  of  about  150  miles 
in  width  is  formed.  The  only  great  river  system  is  that  of 
the  Murray,  1,550  miles  long,  with  a drainage  area  of  270,000 
square  miles.  Inland  salt  lakes  are  a characteristic  feature  of 
the  continent,  the  chief  being  Lakes  Eyre,  Torrens,  Gairdner 

93 


GEORGIA  ranks  second  among  the  States  in  rice  and  sweet  po- 
tatoes, third  in  cotton  and  molasses,  fourth  in  sugar,  seventh  in 
mules,  tenth  in  hogs,  and  twelfth  in  population.  First  settlement, 
by  English,  at  Savannah,  1733.  One  of  the  thirteen  original  States. 


94 


IDAHO  ranks  sixth  among  the  States  and  Territories  in  gold, 
seventh  in  silver,  forty-fifth  in  population.  First  settlement,  by 
Americans,  in  1842.  Organized  as  a Territory  in  1863.  Population, 
1887, territorial  census,  143,669.  “Idaho”  means  light  on  the  moun- 
tains. Admitted  to  the  Union  1890. 


95 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 


and  Amadeus.  North  Australia  and  the  north  part  of  Queens- 
land lie  in  the  torrid  zone  and  have  a mean  temperature  of  78® 
F.  In  the  temperate  zone  extreme  temperatures  prevail.  Bris- 
bane, maximum  102*^;  minimum  40^  F.  Sydney,  average  61^  F. 
Melbpurne,  maximum  105^;  minimum  30^  F.  Adelaide,  maxi- 
mum 110^  ; minimum  35°  F.  Perth,  average  65^  F. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES — Is  the  oldest  of  the  Australasian  col- 
onies. Area — 310,700  square  miles.  Population^Estimated 
1,022,767,  exclusive  of  7,984  aborigines.  Religion — Protestants, 
516,512  ; Roman  Catholics,  207,606  ; Jews,  3,266.  Government 
— Executive,  the  Governor,  appointed  by  the  British  Crown, 
assisted  by  a Cabinet  of  10  Ministers.  Legislative,  the  Parlia- 
ment consisting  of  the  Legislative  Council  of  52  members,  and 
the  Legislative  Assembly  of  122  members.  Education — In  1886 
there  were  i university  (Sydney),  attended  by  340  students  ; 3 
colleges  and  one  grammar  school  with  480  scholars  ; 647  private 
schools  with  38,766  pupils  ; and  2,250  schools  under  the  Depart- 
ment of  Public  Instruction  with  186,126  scholars. 

VICTORIA, — Area — 87,884  square  miles.  Population — Esti- 
mated 1,027,749,  exclusive  of  594  aborigines.  Religion,  1881 — 
Protestants,  613,183;  Roman  Catholics,  203,480;  Jews,  4,33a 
Government — Executive,  the  Governor,  appointed  bj^  the  British 
Crown,  assisted  by  an  Executive  Ministry  of  10  members. 
Legislative,  the  Parliament,  composed  of  the  Legislative  Coun- 
cil of  42  members,  and  the  Legislative  Assembly  of  86  members. 
Education — Free,  secular  and  compulsory.  There  were,  1885,  ^ 
university  at  Melbourne  with  2 affiliated  colleges  attended  by 
444  students,  1846  state-aided  schools  attended  by,  in  1886,  230,- 
576  pupils,  and  707  private  schools  with  44,059  scholars. 

QUEENSLAND.  — Area — 668,224  square  miles.  Population — 
(E^imated),  354,596  (aborigines  about  20,000).  Religion — 1886, 
Protestants,  217,991;  Roman  Catholics,  77,077;  Jews,  724. 
Government — Executive,  the  Governor,  appointed  by  the  British 
Crown,  assisted  by  an  Executive  Council  of  7 ministers.  Legis- 
lative, the  Parliament  consisting  of  the  Legislative  Council  of  39 
members,  and  the  Legislative  Assembly  of  59  members.  The 
defence  forces  comprise  a volunteer  corps  of  from  3,000  to  4,000 
men,  two  gunboats  and  one  torpedo  boat.  Education — Free  and 
secular.  In  1886  there  were  7 grammar  schools  attended  by  565 
pupils  ; 108  private  schools  with  8,177  pupils  ; and  479  public 
elementary  schools  with  58,939  scholars. 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  — The  name  South  Australia  would 
appear  to  imply  that  this  colony  is  confined  to  the  south  of  the 
continent,  but  on  the  contrary  it  extends  to  the  farthest  north, 
under  the  name  of  the  Northern  Territory.  Area — 90309,6 

9G 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 


square  miles.  Population — Estimated  313,355  (exclusive  of  ab- 
origines). Religion — Church  of  England,  75,812  ; Roman  Cath- 
olics, 42,628  ; and  Wesleyan  Methodists,  42,103.  Government — 
Executive,  the  Governor,  appointed  by  the  British  Crown,  and 
an  Executive  Council  of  6 members.  Legislative,  the  Parlia- 
ment consisting  of  the  Legislative  Council  with  24  members, 
and  the  House  of  Assembly  with  52  members.  Education — The 
system  of  education  is  liberal,  compulsory,  state-aided,  and 
secular.  There  were,  1885,  i university  (Adelaide)  with  150  stu- 
dents, 472  public  schools,  attended  by  49,664  pupils,  and  363 
private  schools  with  13,524  scholars. 

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA.— This,  the  largest  of  the  Australa- 
sian colonies,  includes  all  that  portion  of  Australia  situated  to 
the  westward  of  129^  East  long.  Area — 978,300  square  miles. 
Population — 1886,  39,584.  Religion — Protestants,  20,613;  Roman 
Catholics,  8,413.  Government — Executive,  the  Governor,  ap- 
pointed by  the  British  Crown,  assisted  by  an  Executive 
Council  of  6 members.  Legislative,  the  Legislative  Council 
composed  of  9 nominated  and  17  elected  members.  Education 
— State-aided,  secular,  and  compulsory.  There  are  2 grammar 
schools,  77  elementary  schools,  attended  by  3,192  pupils,  and  17 
assisted  schools  with  1,287  scholars. 

TASMANIA  . — This  island  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean  is  situ- 
ated between  the  parallels  of  40°  33'  and  43®  40'  S.  lat.,  and  144® 
40'  and  148®  23'  meridians  E.  long.,  at  the  southeastern  extremity 
of  the  Australian  mainland,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  Bass 
Strait,  about  150  miles  wide.  Area — 26,215  square  miles.  Popu- 
lation— 1887,  137,211  (aborigines  quite  extinct).  Religion— 
Protestants,  102,551;  Roman  Catholics,  30,516;  Jews,  316. 
Government — Executive,  the  Governor,  appointed  by  the  British 
Crown,  assisted  by  an  Executive  Council  of  4 members.  Legis- 
lative, the  Parliament,  composed  of  the  Legislative  Council  of 
18  members,  and  the  House  of  Assembly  of  36  members.  Edu- 
cation— Compulsory.  There  are  16  superior  schools  or  colleges. 
Primary  education  is  administered  by  a department  under  which 
are  209  public  elementary  schools,  attended  by  16,014  scholars. 

NEW  ZEALAND. — Situated  about  1,200  miles  to  the  south- 
east of  Australia,  consists  of  a group  of  three  principal  islands, 
called  respectively,  the  North,  South,  and  Stewart  Islands,  and 
several  islets  mostly  uninhabited.  Area — 104,403  square  miles. 
(North  Island,  45,687  square  miles  ; South  Island,  57,313  square 
miles  ; Stewart  Island,  1,300  square  miles).  Population — 1886, 
578,482  (exclusive  of  41,969  Maoris).  Religion — Protestants, 
461,340;  Roman  Catholics,  79,020;  Jews,  1,559.  Government — 
Executive,  the  Governor,  appointed  by  the  British  Crown,  as- 

97 


ILLINOIS  ranks  firr.t  in  corn,  wheat,  oats,  me'at  packing,  lum- 
ber traffic,  malt  and  distilled  liquors  and  miles  of  railway;  second 
in  rye,  coal,  agricultural  implements  and  hogs;  third  in  popula- 
tion, manufactures,  iron  and  steel  and  cattle.  First  settlement,  by 
French,  Kaskaskia,  1682.  Admitted  to  the  Union,  1818. 


98 


INDIANA  ranks  second  in  wheat,  fourth  in  corn,  hogs  and  agri- 
cultural implements,  eighth  in  coal  and  population,  seventh  in  cattle 
and  miles  of  railway.  First  settlement,  by  French,  at  Vincennes, 
1730.  Admitted  to  the  Union,  1816. 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 

sisted  by  the  Ministry  of  7 members.  Legislative,  the  Governor 
and  the  “General  Assembly,’'  composed  of  the  Legislative 
Council  of  54  members,  and  the  House  of  Representatives  with 
95  members.  Education — Compulsory,  secular  and  free.  In 
1885,  there  were  3 colleges  affiliated  with  the  University  of  New 
Zealand,  attended  by  1,075  students  ; 23  grammar  schools  with 
2, 35S  pupils;  288  private  schools  with  12,473  pupils;  and  1,054 
state  schools  with  105,234  scholars. 

NEW  GUINEA  is  the  largest  island  in  the  world,  if  we  ex- 
clude Australia,  and  lies  some'8o  miles  to  the  north  of  Queens- 
land. All  the  land  to  the  west  of  141O  E.  long,  is  claimed  by  the 
Dutch.  East  of  this.  New  Guinea  has  been  divided  between 
Britain  and  Germany,  the  boundary  line  running  in  a direction 
from  northwest  to  southeast,  the  northern  portion  belonging  to 
Germany  and  the  southern  part  to  Britain.  ” 

BRITISH  NEW  GUINEA. 

Area — 86,457  square  miles.  Population — 135,000  (total  popu- 
lation of  New  Guinea,  2,500,000).  Government — Special  and 
Deputy  Commissioners  who  reside  at  Port  Moresby,  the  seat  of 
administration  and  only  port  of  entry  for  goods,  etc. 

GERMAN  NEW  GUINEA. 

In  1885,  Germany  took  possession  of  the  northern  part  of  New 
Guinea,  lying  to  the  east  of  the  Dutch,  and  north  of  the  British 
possessions.  This  territory  was  called  Kaiser  Wilhelm’s  Land. 
Afterwards  the  New  Britain  Islands,  and  the  islands  of  Bougain- 
ville, Choiseul,  and  Isabel,  in  the  Solomon  group,  were  annexed 
under  the  name  of  Bismarck  Archipelago.  Area — 95,653  square 
miles.  Population — 318,000.  The  seat  of  administration  is  at 
Finschhaven,  where  the  Governor  resides. 

THE  FIJI  ISLANDS.— The  Fiji  or  Viti  Archipelago  lies 
east  of  the  New  Hebrides,  and  comprises  about  225  islands  and 
islets,  nearly  80  of  which  are  inhabited.  Area — 8,048  square 
miles.  Population — 1887,  126,010,  nearly  all  natives.  Religion 
— In  1885,  the  Wesleyan  Mission  consisted  of  976  churches,  and 
279  other  preaching-places  with  an  attendance  of  104,866;  the 
Roman  Catholic  Mission  of  14  churches  and  70  chapels  with  an 
attendance  of  9,100.  Government — Fiji  is  a Crown  colony  of 
Great  Britain  and  its  affairs  are  administered  by  a Governor  and 
Executive  Council  of  4 members.  Laws  are  prepared  by  a 
Legislative  Council,  consisting  of  6 official  and  6 unofficial  mem- 
bers, of  which  the  Governor  is  president.  Native  administration 
is  carried  on  through  the  chiefs  under  the  Governor’s  super- 
vision. Education — Two  public  schools,  state-supported,  had 
an  attendance,  in  1885,  of  267.  42,698  scholars  are  taught  by  the 

native  teachers  of  the  Wesleyan  Mission.  The  Roman  Catholic 

100 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 


Missions  conduct  84  native  schools  with  1,040  scholars.  The 
chief  exports  are  sugar,  copra  and  cotton. 

AFRICA 

Forms  the  vast  southwestern  peninsula  of  the  Old  World, 
being  joined  to  Asia  bj  the  narrow  isthmus  of  Suez.  Greatest 
length,  5,000  miles.  Greatest  breadth,  4,600  miles.  No  other 
land  division  on  the  globe  has  such  a rounded  and  compact 
outline.  Access  to  the  interior  is  rendered  difficult  by  the  general 
absence  of  gulfs  and  large  inlets.  The  coast  line  measures  16,000 
miles,  or  720  square  miles  of  surface  to  each  mile  of  coast.  Area 
— About  11,000,000  square  miles,  being  three  times  that  of  Eu- 
rope, or  one-fifth  of  the  land  surface  of  the  globe.  Population — 
No  definite  figures  exist  for  the  larger  part  of  Africa,  but  the 
population  is  estimated  at  about  200,000,000,  or  over  one-seventh 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  world.  Climate — Only  the  northern 
shores  and  the  southern  extremity  of  the  continent  have  a mean 
temperature  of  less  than  68^  F.  with  winter  rains.  From  18*^  N. 
lat.  to  20°  S.  lat.  extends  the  region  of  tropical  rains  ; maximum 
temperature  in  Khartoum,  115^  F.  The  rainless  regions  are  the 
Sahara  and  the  Kalahari. 

SOUTH  AFRICA. — The  southern  extremity  of  Africa,  washed 
by  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  west  and  by  the  Indian  Ocean  on 
the  south  and  east,  comprises  the  colonies  and  protectorates  of 
Great  Britain,  the  Dutch  republics,  and  various  less  important 
divisions. 

CAPE  COLONY 

Is  a British  possession.  Executive,  the  Governor  and  Exec- 
utive Council.  Legislative,  the  Legislative  Council  of  22  mem- 
bers and  House  of  Assembly  of  74  members. 

NATAL. 

The  Government  of  Natal  is  administered  for  the  British 
Crown  by  a Governor,  assisted  by  an  Executive  Council  and  a 
Legislative  Council  of  30  members. 

SOUTH  AFRICAN  REPUBLIC. 

Government — Under  the  suzerainty  of  the  British  Crown. 
Executive  vested  in  the  President.  Legislative  in  the  Volksraad 
of  44  members. 

ORANGE  FREE  STATE. 

Government — Executive,  the  President  assisted  by  an  Exec- 
utive Council.  Legislative,  the  Volksraad  of  56  members. 

CENTRAL  AFRICA. — With  the  rapid  advance  which  explora- 
tion has  made  in  Central  Africa  within  recent  years,  there  has 
followed  a great  rivalry  among  European  nations  for  colonies 
and  protectorates.  Since  the  founding  of  the  Congo  Free  State, 

101 


THE  INDIAN  TERRITORY  was  originally  set  apart  as  a reser- 
vation for  peaceful  tribes.  Organized  in  1834,  but  under  different 
forms  of  government  from  the  other  Territories.  The  lands  are 
held  in  common  by  the  Indians,  and  whites  can  hold  only  through 
marriage  with  Indians.  Grazing  and  agriculture  are  the  leading 
industries.  Oklahoma  was  opened  to  white  settlers  in  1889. 


102 


IOWA  ranks  first  in  hogs,  second  in  cattle,  corn,  hay  and  oats, 
third  in  horses,  fifth  in  miles  of  railway,  seventh  in  wheat  and 
coal,  tenth  in  population.  First  settlement,  by  French  Canadians, 
at  Burlington,  1788.  Admitted  to  the  Union  in  1846. 


103 


THE  WOE  LI?  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 


international  commissions  have  distributed  native  territory  so 
freely,  that  in  a short  time  but  fe'sv  of  the  original  states  will 
remain. 

CONGO  FREE  STATE. 

In  1885,  the  Congo  Free  State  was  constituted  and  defined  by 
the  International  Conference  held  at  Berlin.  It  was  declared 
neutral  and  free  to  the  trade  of  all  nations,  and  has  been  suc- 
cessively recognized  by  all  the  leading  countries  of  the  world. 
The  state  is  placed  under  the  sovereignty  of  Leopold  II.,  King 
of  the  Belgians,  and  is  governed  by  an  Administrator-General, 
who  resides  at  Boma,  the  capital.  Area,  800,000  square  miles. 
Population,  24,000,000.  Annual  grant  from  Leopold  II.,  $200,- 
000. 

EASTERN  EQUATORIAL  AFRICA. 

A commission  was  appointed  in  1886,  by  Britain  and  Germany, 
to  fix  the  boundaries  of  Zanzibar  with  reference  to  German  ter- 
ritory. They  agreed  that  Zanzibar  is  to  possess  a strip  of  coast 
from  Cape  Delgado  to  the  Tana  River,  and  extending  ten  miles 
inland,  with  several  ports  north  of  the  latter  ; that  Germany  is 
to  have,  as  a sphere  of  influence,  the  country  stretching  from  the 
Rovuma  River,  northward  to  and  including  Kilimanjaro  ; and 
that  Britain’s  sphere  embraces  the  country  between  Kilimanjaro 
and  tne  Tana  River. 

Zanzibar — Area,  9,190  square  miles  (Zanzibar  Island,  614 
square  miles  ; Pemba,  372  square  miles  ; Mafia,  210  square 
miles  ; Mainland,  8,000  square  miles).  Population,  250,000. 
Imports,  1883,  $6,000,000  ; Exports,  $4,000,000. 

Germany — Protectorates,  Wito  Land,  5,200  square  miles  ; 
Usagara,  etc.,  20,700  square  miles  ; territory  in  which  protect- 
orates may  be  established,  122,800  square  miles. 

British  territory  in  which  protectorates  may  be  established, 

72.000  square  miles. 

THE  PORTUGUESE  COLONIES 
South  of  the  Equator  are  named,  respectiveljs  Angola  and 
Mozambique.  The  former,  on  the  west  coast,  extends  from  the 
Cunene  River  to  the  mouth  of  the  Congo  and  includes  the  small 
territories  of  Cabinda  and  Landana,  north  of  the  latter.  Area, 

115.000  square  miles;  Population,  1,000,000.  Mozambique  ex- 
tends from  Cape  Delgado  to  Delagoa  Bay,  and  up  the  lower 
Zambesi,  but  only  a few  isolated  points  are  actually  occupied. 
Area,  80,000  square  miles.  Population,  600,000. 

FRENCH  COLONIES. 

Equatorial  France  comprises  the  Gaboon  and  Ogowe-Cong® 
regions,  which,  as  defined  at  the  Berlin  Conference,  have  an 

104 


THE  WOE  LB  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 


area  of  174,000  square  miles  ; with  about  1,700,000  inhabitants. 
Imports  (Gaboon),  1883,  $840,000  ; exports,  $1,480,000. 

GERMAN  COLONIES. 

On  the  southwest  coast  Luderitz  Land  comprises  all  the  land 
between  the  Cunene  and  Orange  Rivers  (with  the  exception  of 
Walvisch  Bay),  and  the  interior  lands  acquired  by  treaty.  Area, 

200.000  square  miles,  with  about  236,000  inhabitants. 

EGYPT.  — Previous  to  1884  the  Khedive  claimed  authority 

over  territories  extending  southward  as  far  as  the  Equator.  But 
within  the  last  few  years  the  inhabitants  of  these  equatorial 
provinces  have  rebelled  against  the  authority  of  the  Egyptian 
Government.  As  a result  these  districts  have  been  abandoned, 
and  Akashe,  above  Wady  Haifa,  about  800  miles  up  the  Nile 
from  Cairo,  has  been  provisionally  agreed  upon  as  the  boundary 
of  Egypt  on  the  south.  On  the  north  it  is  limited  by  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  ; on  the  east  by  Arabia  and  the  Red  Sea  ; and  on 
the  west  by  Tripoli  and  the  Libyan  Desert.  Religion — 500,000 
Copts,  descendants  of  the  old  Egyptians,  who  are  Christians  ; 

91.000  foreigners,  also  Christians  ; rest  Mohammedan.  Gov- 
ernment— Egypt  is  nominally  a vassal  state  of  the  Porte,  to 
which  it  pays  a yearly  tribute  of  £695,792,  but  practically  it  is 
independent  under  the  rule  of  an  hereditary  Khedive  or  Viceroy. 
The  administration  is  now  carried  on  by  native  Ministers,  sub- 
ject to  the  ruling  of  the  Khedive,  and  under  the  supervision  of 
England.  A Legislative  Council  consisting  of  30  m.embers  has 
recently  been  formed,  but  its  power  is  very  limited.  Education 
— Numerous  elementary  and  secondary  schools  are  found 
throughout  the  country,  from  which  the  pupils  pass  to  special 
colleges. 

THE  SUEZ  CANAL.  —From  remote  ages  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez  has  been  traversed  by  a canal  following  nearly  the  line  of 
the  present  one  ; nothing  certain,  however,  seems  to  be  known 
as  to  who  was  its  first  constructor,  but  the  credit  is  generally 
given  to  Pharaoh  Necho,  who  reigned  about  600  b.c.  It,  in 
course  of  time,  got  silted  up  with  sand,  but  was  cleared  out  by 
Trajan  in  the  second  century  a.d.,  and  again  in  767.  The 
Emperor  Napoleon  desired  to  reconstruct  the  canal,  and  had  the 
isthmus  surveyed,  but  nothing  was  done  till  M.  Ferdinand  de 
Lesseps,  in  1854,  obtained  permission  from  the  Viceroy  of  Egypt 
to  construct  a canal,  uniting  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  Seas. 
A company  was  formed  to  carry  out  his  views,  two-fifths  of  the 
i^apital  being  furnished  by  the  Viceroy,  and  the  remainder  in 
Europe,  chiefly  in  France.  The  work  was  commenced  in  i860, 
and  on  September  28,  1869,  M.  Lesseps  sailed  in  a small  steamer 
through  it.  The  canal  runs  north  and  south  from  Port  Said  to 

105 


KENTUCKY  ranks  first  in  tobacco,  fourth  in  malt  and  distilled 
liquors,  sixth  in  hogs,  seventh  in  corn,  eighth  in  rye,  coal,  mules; 
iith  in  population.  First  settlers,  English,  Boonesboro,  1775.  Ad- 
mitted to  the  Union,  1792.  TENNESSEE  ranks  second  in  peanuts, 
third  in  mules,  sixth  in  tobacco,  seventh  in  copper  and  hogs,  niuth 
in  corn  and  cotton,  twelfth  in  population.  First  settlejrs,  English, 
Fort  London,  1757.  Admitted  to  Union,  1796. 


107 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 

Suez;  the  length  from  sea  to  sea  is  99  miles,  with  a width  of  327 
feet  for  77  miles,  and  of  196  for  the  remaining  22  miles;  the  depth 
is  26  feet.  In  November,  1875,  the  British  Government  pur- 
chased from  the  Khedive  the  original  shares  held  by  him  for 
^3^976,582.  It  is  now  proposed  to  widen  the  canal  to  166  metres. 
The  canal  has  reduced  the  distance  frorn  London  to  India  from 
11,379  miles  to  7,628,  a saving  of  36  days  on  the  voyage  by  the 
Cape.  The  number  of  vessels  that  passed  through  the  canal  in 
1886  was  3,100.  The  tonnage,  8,183,313  ; the  receipts  £2,241,095. 

MAURITIUS. — An  island  lying  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  a 
possession  of  Great  Britain,  500  miles  east  of  Madagascar^  in- 
cludes within  its  government,  as  dependencies,  the  Seychelles 
Group,  Rodriguez,  and  Diego  Garcia  Islands,  and  about  seventy 
other  islets.  Area — 713  square  miles  (with  dependencies,  1,025 
square  miles.)  Population — 1887,  368,415.  Religion — 108,000 
Roman  Catholics  and  8,000  Protestants.  The  Government  is  ad- 
ministered by  the  Governor,  aided  by  an  Executive  Council  of  5 
members,  and  a Legislative  Council  of  27  members.  Education- 
One  college  with  145  students,  and  140  primary  schools,  attended 
by  15,792  pupils  in  1886.  Government  grant  in  1886,  £42,943. 

ST.  HELENA. — A solitary  island  situated  in  the  South  Atlan- 
tic, 760  miles  from  the  nearest  land.  Ascension.  Area — 47  square 
miles.  Population — 1883,  5,085.  It  is  controlled  for  Great  Britain 
by  a Governor,  aided  by  an  Executive  Council  of  4 members. 

NORTH  AMERICA 

Forms  the  northern  and  larger  part  of  the  New  World  ; the 
greater  portion  of  it  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  north 
temperate  zone.  Greatest  length,  4,400  miles.  Greatest  breadth, 
3,800  miles.  The  outline,  more  especially  in  the  north,  where  it 
takes  the  form  of  an  achipelago  of  islands,  is  very  much  inter- 
sected and  broken  by  the  numerous  inlets  of  the  sea.  Excluding 
Arctic  America  and  Greenland  (1,338,500  square  miles)  the  area 
is  about  8,000,000  square  miles.  In  a continent  extending  over 
about  65  degrees  of  latitude  and  nearly  twice  as  many  of  longi- 
tude, great  varieties  of  climate  are  necessarily  met  with.  While 
the  Pacific  shores  have  generally  a milder  climate  than  those  of 
the  Atlantic,  the  average  temperature  of  the  continent  is  lower 
than  that  of  corresponding  latitudes  in  the  Old  World. 

BRITISH  NORTH  AMERICA.— Within  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  is  included  all  the  land  lying  north  of  the  United  States, 
with  the  exception  of  Alaska,  Newfoundland,  and  Labrador. 
Exclusive  of  the  Arctic  Islands,  the  total  area  is  3,420,777  square 
miles.  Population — 1881  (census),  4,324,810.  1889  (estimated),, 

5,000,000.  French,  1,298,930;  Irish,  957,403;  English,  881,300; 

108 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE, 


Scotch,  699,863;  Germans,  254,320;  Indians  (1885),  129,525. 
Religion — No  state  church.  In  1881,  there  were  1,791,982  Ro- 
man Catholics;  2,422,285  Protestants  (Presbyterians,  676,165; 
Church  of  England,  574,818;  Methodists,  1,042,980);  Jews,  2,393. 
Government — Executive  authority  vested  in  the  British  Crown, 
and  exercised  in  its  name  by  a Governor-General,  aided  by  a 
Privy  Council.  Legislative,  vested  in  the  Parliament,  composed 
of  the  Senate  with  78  members,  and  the  House  of  Commons 
with  215  members.  Education — 24  colleges  with  2,000  students. 
In  1884,  there  were  730  private  and  high  schools  with  88,593 
pupils,  and  15,000  public  and  elementary  schools  with  904,600 
pupils. 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA,  situated  on  the  west  coast  of  North 
America,  comprises  the  territory  between  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  th^  Pacific  Coast,  together  with  Vancouver  Island  and  Qiieen 
Charlotte  Islands.  Area — 341,305  square  miles.  Population — 
Estimated,  1886,  60,000.  Government — Lieutenant-Governor  and 
Executive  Council  of  4 members,  together  with  the  Legislative 
Assembly  of  25  members.  Education — Twelve  high  and  su- 
perior schools  with  2,283  pupils,  and  71  nublic  schools  with  2,188 
pupils. 

NEW  BRUNSWICK  has  an  area  of  27,174  square  miles. 
Population,  1881 — 321,233  (1576  Indians).  Government — Ad- 
ministered by  a Lieutenant-Governor,  assisted  by  an  Executive 
Council,  a Legislative  Council  of  18  members,  and  a Legisla- 
tive Assembly  of  41  members.  Education — Besides  King’s  Col- 
lege at  Fredericton,  and  numerous  grammar  schools,  there  were, 
in  1886,  1,515  public  schools  with  61,802  pupils. 

MANITOBA,  formerly  the  Red  River  Settlement,  was  formed 
into  a distinct  province  in  1870,  and  admitted  into  the  Confeder- 
ation in  the  same  year.  It  is  situated  in  the  center  of  the  conti- 
nent. Area — 60,520  square  miles.  Population — 1881,  65,954 
(1886,  108,640).  Government — Administered  by  a Lieutenant- 
Governor,  assisted  by  an  Executive  Council  of  5 members  and  a 
Legislative  Assembly  of  35  members.  Education — Nine  high 
schools  with  400  pupils,  and  394  elementary  schools  with  12,694 
pupils. 

NORTH-WEST  TERRITORY.— This  province  comprises 
nearly  the  whole  of  British  North  America  from  the  boundary 
of  the  United  States  to  the  most  northerly  part  of  the  con- 
tinent, and  from  the  western  shores  of  Hudson  Bay  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  with  a total  area  of  2,553,337  square  miles, 
and  an  estimated  population  of  79,293,  of  whom  25,000  are  In- 
dians. 


109 


LOUISIANA  ranks  first  among  the  States  in  sugar  and  molasses, 
third  in  rice,  seventh  in  cotton,  ninth  in  salt,  twenty- fifth  in 
population.  The  first  settlement  was  in  1699,  by  French,  at  Iber- 
ville. Admitted  to  the  Union  in  1812. 


110 


MAINE  ranks  fifth  among  the  States  in  buckwheat  and  copper, 
eighth  in  hops  and  potatoes,  eleventh  in  hay,  and  thirtieth  in 
population.  The  first  settlers  were  French,  at  Bristol,  1625.  Ad- 
mitted to  the  Union  in  1820. 


Ill 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE, 


Out  of  this  vast  territory,  in  1882,  the  Dominion  Government 
formed  four  provisional  districts:  Assiniboia,  Saskatchewan, 
Alberta,  Athabasca.  The  Government  is  vested  in  a Lieutenant- 
Governor  and  a Council  of  20.  Both  Assiniboia  and  Alberta 
are  traversed  bj  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  and  settlement 
is  rapidly  taking  place  along  its  route. 

NOVA  SCOTIA  , — Nova  Scotia,  a peninsula  of  North  America 
on  its  east  side,  forms  with  the  island  of  Cape  Breton  one  of  the 
provinces  which  constitute  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  Area — 
20,907  square  miles.  Population,  1881 — 440,572,  (2138  Indians). 
Government — Administered  by  a Lieutenant-Governor,  aided  by 
an  Executive  Council,  a Legislative  Council  of  21  members,  and 
a Legislative  Assembly  of  38  members.  Education — There  are 
6 colleges,  the  best  endowed  being  King’s  College  at  Windsor, 
several  high  schools,  and  2,111  public  schools  attended  by  86,858 
pupils  in  1886. 

PRINCE  EDWARD  ISLAND.— Prince  Edward  Island  lies 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  between 
New  Brunswick  and  Cape  Breton,  to  the  north  of  Nova  Scotia, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  Northumberland  Strait.  Area 
— 2,133  square  miles.  Population,  1881 — 108,891  (323  Indians). 
Government — Vested  in  a Lieutenant-Governor  and  an  Execu- 
tive Council,  a Legislative  Council  of  13  members,  and  a Legis- 
lative Assembly  of  30  members.  Education — 20  high  and 
superior  schools  with  831  pupils,  and  437  public  schools  attended 
by  22,414  pupils  in  1886. 

NEWFOUNDLAND. — The  island  of  Newfoundland  forms  a 
British  province,  distinct  as  yet  from  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 
Its  Government  extends  over  the  mainland  strip  of  Labrador, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  12  miles 
across.  Area — 42,000  square  miles.  Population,  1884 — 193,121. 
Religion — Church  of  England,  69,000;  Roman  Catholics,  75,254; 
Wesleyans,  48,787.  Government — The  Government  is  admin- 
istered by  a Governor,  appointed  by  the  British  Crown,  assisted 
by  an  Executive  Council  (not  exceeding  7 members),  a Legis- 
lative Council  (not  exceeding  15  members),  and  a House  of 
Assembly  consisting  of  36  representatives.  Education — 1885, 
402  aided  schools  attended  by  27,322  pupils. 

LABRADOR,  a dependency  of  Newfoundland,  forms  the 
most  easterly  part  of  America.  The  coast  is  mainly  fre- 
quented for  the  sake  of  the  seal  and  cod,  and  when  those  fisher  - 
ies are  in  progress,  the  population  of  the  country  (normally 
about  4000)  is  raised  to  upwards  of  25,000. 

THE  UNITED  STATES.— On  the  north  the  United  States 
112 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 


are  bounded  by  British  North  America;  on  the  west  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean;  on  the  south  by  Mexico,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
Florida  Channel;  and  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  New 
Brunswick,  Extent  nearly  as  large  as  Europe;  total  area,  3,602,- 
990  square  miles.  Alaska,  577,390  vsquare  miles.  Rivers  and  lakes 
occupy  38,400  square  miles.  Population — 1880  census,  50,497,057 
(1889,  estimated,  60,000,000).  Nationalities,  1880 — Native  hovft, 
43,475,840;  Colored  fopulatio7i^  6,580,793;  Indians^  339>098; 
Chinese^  105,465;  Germans^  1,966,742;  Irish^  ^yi'^Canadians, 
E7iglish,  662,676;  Scanduiavians^  440,262;  Scotch,  170,- 
J36;  Welsh,  83,302;  and  519,254  other  nationalities.  Education — 
There  are  365  universities  with  69,728  students,  1,617  pi'ivate 
schools  with  160,137  pupils,  and  11,169,923  scholars  in  the  public 
schools,  maintained  at  a cost  of  $110,000,000  in  1885;  4,923,431 
adults  could  not  read  and  6,239,958  were  unable  to  write  in  1880. 
In  South  Carolina,  Louisiana,  Alabama  and  Georgia  45  per  cent, 
could  not  read;  adult  colored  people,  70  per  cent,  illiterate. 

North  Atlantic  States. — Connecticut,  Maine,  Massa- 
chusetts, New  Hampshire,  Rhode  Island,  Vermont. — Great  for- 
ests and  rapid  streams,  affording  abundant  water-power,  have 
placed  lumbering  and  shipbuilding  among  the  foremost  industries 
of  this  section.  Maine  alone  produces  annually  sawed  timber  to 
the  value  of  $12,000,000,  while,  during  1882,  120  vessels  of  61,- 
296  tons  were  built  in  the  same  State. 

Middle  Atlantic  States.^ — Dist.  of  Columbia,  Delaware, 
Mary  land,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Pennsylvania. — Abundance 
of  coal  and  iron,  and  the  great  facilities  for  internal  and  external 
communication  have  rendered  mining  and  manufacturing  the 
chief  industries  and  largely  developed  commerce.  In  1885, 
48,345,680  tons  of  coal  and  3,813,212  tons  of  pig  and  rolled  iron 
were  produced,  while  in  1880  there  was  90,600  manufactories. 
The  import  and  export  trade  of  New  York  during  1886  amounted 
to  $733,000,000,  being  56  per  cent,  of  the  entire  commerce  of  the 
country. 

South  Atlantic  States. — Florida,  Georgia,  North  Caro- 
lina, South  Carolina,  Virginia,  West  Virginia. — The  warm 
climate  and  wide  coast  plains  offer  pre-eminent  advantages 
for  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  tobacco  and  rice,  while  orange  cul- 
ture flourishes  in  Florida.  In  1880,  95,380,000  pounds  of  rice; 
in  1882,  124,079,780  pounds  of  tobacco  and  2,121,000  bales  of 
cotton;  and,  in  1885,  over  200,000,000  oranges  were  raised  in 
these  States. 

Northern  Division  East  of  the  Mississippi. — In  this 
division  we  include  Illinois,  Indiana,  Kentucky,  Michigan, 
Ohio  and  Wisconsin.  These  States  possess  great  natural 

113 


MARYLAND  ranks  second  among'  the  States  in  fisheries,  fourth 
in  coal,  seventh  in  tobacco,  eighth  in  copper,  ninth  in  iron  ore, 
twenty-third  in  population.  The  first  settlement  was  at  St.  Mary, 
by  English,  in  1634.  One  of  the  thirteen  original  States. 


114 


MASSACHUSETTS  ranks  first  in  cotton,  woolen  and  worsted 
goods,  cod  and  mackerel  fishing,  second  in  wealth  and  commerce, 
third  in  manufactures,  printing  and  publishing,  sixth  in  iron  and 
steel,  seventh  in  population.  First  settlement,  by  English,  at  Ply- 
mouth, 1620.  One  of  the  thirteen  original  States. 


115 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE 


advantages  of  fertile  soil  and  large  deposits  of  valuable 
minerals,  so  that  agriculture,  grazing,  manufacturing  and 
mining  have  become  wide-spread  industries.  According  to 
the  agricultural  returns  for  1886,  569,703,000  bushels  of  corn, 

161.881.000  bushels  of  wheat,  and  235,693,000  bushels  of  oats  were 
grown;  while,  in  1887,  there  were  3,705,660  horses  and  8,693,147 
cattle.  In  1882,  256,047,310  pounds  of  tobacco  were  produced. 
During  1885,  19,587,190  tons  of  coal  and  1,562,566  tons  of  iron 
Were  produced.  In  1880  the  manufacturing  establishments  num- 
bered 68,320. 

Northern  Division  West  of  the  ]\  /ssissippi. — In  this 
are  included  Iowa,  Kansas,  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  and  Missouri, 
Dakota  and  the  Indian  Territory.  Industries  similar  to  above. 

611.107.000  bushels  of  corn,  160,006,000  bushels  of  wheat,  and 

217.798.000  bushels  of  oats  were  grown  during  1886,  while  the 
farm  stock  included,  in  1887,  3,290,569  horses  and  11,518,417  cat- 
tle. 7,885,610  tons  of  coal  and  67,955  tons  of  iron  were  produced 
in  1885.  In  1880  the  manufactories  numbered  19,720. 

Southern  Division. — Alabama,  Mississippi,  Tennessee, 
Arkansas,  Louisiana  and  Texas.  The  warm  and  moist  climate 
and  extreme  fertility  of  the  soil  have  made  the  growth  of  cotton, 
rice  and  sugar-cane  the  foremost  industries.  During  1882, 

4.794.000  bales  of  cotton  were  raised,  while  Louisiana,  Missis- 
sippi and  Texas  produced  25,000,000  pounds  of  rice  in  1880,  and 
Louisiana  alone  145,986  hogsheads  of  sugar  in  1886-87. 

Highland  States  and  Territories. — This  region,  em- 
bracing Arizona,  Colorado,  Idaho,  Montana,  Nevada,  New 
Mexico,  Utah  and  Wyoming,  has  a cool  and  remarkably  drv 
climate,  and  the  valleys  afford  fine  pasture,  but  the  rich  mines  of 
gold  and  silver  in  the  mountains  render  mining  the  chief  occu- 
pation. During  1885  gold  valued  at  $14,260,000,  silver  valued  at 
$48,910,000,  and  2,471,397  tons  of  coal  were  produced. 

The  Pacific  Coast. — This  section  embraces  California, 
Oregon  and  Washington  Territory.  This  district  with  the  above 
mentioned  is,  perhaps,  the  richest  in  metals  on  the  globe.  Besides 
mining,  the  chief  occupation,  the  forests  of  the  outer  slope  furnish 
inexhaustible  supplies  of  timber,  so  that  lumbering  has  become 
a distinctive  industry.  The  most  wealthy  and  populous  ^tate  is 
California,  which,  besides  its  immense  mineral  deposits,  possesses 
great  fertility  of  soil  in  its  valleys,  so  that  agriculture  and  the 
cultivation  of  fruits,  both  of  the  temperate  and  semi-tropical 
zones,  are  in  a most  advanced  condition.  During  1885  gold 
valued  at  $13,620,000,  silver  valued  at  $2,580,000,  and  448,095 
tons  of  coal  were  produced,  while,  in  1886,  the  wheat  crop  of 
California  alone  amounted  to  36,165,000  bushels,  and  the 

116 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 

lumber  produce  of  Puget  Sound  (Washington)  to  $1,200,000 
in  1880. 

MEXICO. — Area,  751,177  square  miles.  Population,  10,460,703 
?n  1884,  20  per  cent,  white  race,  43  per  cent,  natives  of  mixed  race, 
and  37  per  cent.  Indians.  Religion — Prevailing  religion,  Roman 
Catholic,  though  by  law  there  is  toleration  of  all  other  religions. 
62  Protestant  churches  with  over  20,000  adherents.  Government 
— A confederate  republic.  Executive,  the  President.  Legisla- 
tive, the  Congress,  consisting  of  the  House  of  Representatives 
with  227  members,  and  the  Senate  with  56  members.  Army — 
20,635  men  (peace  footing);  164,000  men  (war  footing).  Navy 
— 7 small  vessels.  Education — 1884,  8,986  elementary  schools 
with  nearly  500,000  pupils,  and  138  higher  schools  with  17,200 
scholars.  Government  grant,  $3,400,000.  Finance — Revenue, 
1886-87  (estimated),  $30,625,000;  expenditures,  1886 — 87  (esti- 
mated), $26,700,000;  national  debt,  $162,737,650.  Imports — 
1885-86,  $41,285,000.  Exports — 1885-86,  $51,500,000.  Chief 
articles  exported,  1884-85 — Precious  metals,  $13,425,000;  textile 
fibers,  $4,630,000.  Industries — 102,240  men  employed  in  mining. 
Between  1021  and  1880  silver  to  the  value  of  $900,000,000,  and 
gold  to  the  value  of  $4,841,000  were  produced.  88  cotton  factories 
with  12,846  employes. 

CENTRAL  AMERICA  AND  WEST  INDIES.— The  Central 
American  States  comprise  that  portion  of  the  narrow  belt  of 
land  adjoining  North  and  South  America  which  extends  from 
the  southern  borders  of  Mexico,  south  of  the  Yucatan  peninsula, 
to  the  beginning  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama — Guatemala,  San 
Salvador,  Nicaragua,  Honduras,  Costa  Rica  and  British  Hon- 
duras. The  West  Indies  are  an  immense  number  of  islands  and 
islets,  some  of  them  mere  rocks,  extending  from  10°  to  27O  N. 
lat.  and  from  55°  30'  to  85®  W.  long.  They  are  divided  physi- 
cally into  three  distinct  groups,  the  Bahamas,  the  Greater  An- 
tilles and  the  Lesser  Antilles.  But  politically  they  are,  with  a 
few  exceptions,  divided  between  European  powers — Spain,  Great 
Britain,  France,  Holland  and  Denmark. 

SOUTH  AMERICA 

Forms  the  southern  and  lesser  part  of  the  great  American 
Peninsula,  and  is  joined  to  North  America  by  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  which,  at  its  narrowest  part,  is  only  30  miles  broad. 
Greatest  length,  Pt.  Gallinas  to  Cape  Horn,  4,700  miles.  Greatest 
breadth.  Cape  Branco  to  Cape  Burica,  3,200  miles.  The  outline 
is  regular  and  forms  a continuous  though  curved  line,  not 
greatly  serrated  or  broken  into  by  the  sea,  except  at  the  south, 
where  a large  number  of  islands  occur.  The  coast  line  measures 
16,500  miles,  or  420  miles  of  surface  to  each  mile  of  coast.  Area 

117 


MICHIGAN  ranks  first  among-  the  States  in  copper,  lumber  and 
salt,  second  in  iron  ore,  third  in  buckwheat  and  wool,  fifth  in  hops 
and  potatoes,  sixth  in  wheat  and  barley,  seventh  in  agricultural 
implements,  eighth  in  miles  of  railway,  ninth  in  population.  First 
settlement,  by  French,  at  Detroit,  1650.  Admitted  to  the  Union, 

>837- 


1J8 


MINNESOTA  ranks  fourth  among  the  States  of  the  Union  in 
wheat  and  barley,  eighth  in  oats  and  hay,  and  twentieth  in  popula- 
tion. The  first  settlement  in  Minnesota  was  by  Americans,  Red 
River,  1812.  Admitted  into  the  Union  in  1858. 


119 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 


' — 7,000,000  square  miles,  nearly  twice  that  of  Europe,  or  one- 
eighth  of  the  entire  land  surface  of  the  globe.  The  number  ot 
inhabitants,  according  to  the  latest  estimates,  amounts  to  over 
32,000,000.  With  two-thirds  of  its  area  within  the  torrid  zone, 
the  average  temperature  in  South  America  is  necessarily  higher 
than  that  of  North  America.  The  moisture  is  also  very  great, 
attains  its  maximum  in  the  extreme  north,  and  is  everywhere 
greater  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Andes  than  on  the  western. 

COLOMBIA. — The  Republic  of  Colombia,  as  the  former  Re- 
public of  New  Granada  is  now  styled,  is  a federal  republic  of 
nine  departments,  in  the  northwest  part  of  South  America.  The 
most  western  of  these  departments  is  the  isthmus  connecting  the 
two  continents.  There  is  no  state  religion,  natives  and  foreigners 
alike  being  guaranteed  the  most  complete  freedom  of  worship; 
in  Bogota  and  other  towns  Protestant  churches  have  been 
opened.  Government — Republican.  Executive-^The  President, 
assisted  by  seven  Ministers.  Legislative — The  Congress,  consist- 
ing of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  the  fornj^^r 
composed  of  27  members,  the  latter  of  66.  Each  department 
administers  its  own  finances,  etc.  The  forces  comprise  a stand- 
ing army  of  3,000  men.  Education — Considerable  attention  is 
paid  to  education,  there  being  as  many  as  1,800  schools  giving 
instruction  to  75,000  pupils,  while  an  “Escuela  Normal,*’  or  col- 
lege for  the  instruction  of  teachers,  is  provided  for  in  the  capital 
of  each  department.  Panama  Canal — The  canal  in  course  of 
construction  across  the  isthmus,  between  Panama  and  Colon, 
will  have  a total  length  of  47  miles;  average  depth,  28  feet;  mini- 
mum width,  72  feet. 

VENEZUELA. — Religion — The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  state 
religion,  but  there  is  toleration  of  all  others,  though  they  are  not 
permitted  any  external  manifestations.  Only  one  per  cent,  of 
the  population  in  1884  were  whites.  Government — Republican. 
Executive — The  President,  assisted  by  six  Ministers  and  the  Fed- 
eral Council  of  16  membei:s.  Legislative — The  Congress,  com- 
posed of  the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives,  the  former 
with  24  senators,  the  latter  with  52  representatives.  The  Pro- 
vinces or  States  of  the  Republic  have  each  their  own  executive  and 
legislature.  Education — There  were  (1884)  two  universities,  19 
federal  colleges  with  2,538  students;  19  private  colleges  and 
normal  schools  with  907  students,  and  1,794  schools  attended  by 
95,000  pupils. 

GUIANA. — Guiana,  in  its  widest  sense,  certainly  embraces  the 
whole  of  the  Sierra  Parime,  thus  including  districts  at  present 
belonging  to  Venezuela  and  Brazil;  but  the  name  is  now  gener- 
ally restricted  to  the  colonial  possessions  of  Britain,  Holland 
and  France,  in  this  part  of  the  world.  British  Guiana  is  by  far 

120 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 

the  most  flourishing,  agriculturally  and  commercially,  ot  the 
three  colonies.  The  population  embraces  7,538  origines.  Gov- 
ernment— The  Governor,  appointed  by  the  British  Crown, 
assisted  by  the  Court  of  Policy  of  nine  members,  and  a Com- 
bined Court  containing,  in  addition  to  those  nine,  six  flnancial 
representatives. 

ECUADOR. — Included  within  the  Republic  01  Ecuador  are 
the  Galapagos  Islands,  situated  in  the  Pacific  about  730  miles 
due  west  of  the  coast.  According  to  the  constitution  the  religion 
of  the  Republic  is  Roman  Catholic  to  the  exclusion  of  every^ 
other.  Government — Executive,  the  President.  Legislative, 
the  Congress  of  two  houses,  the  first  consisting  of  two  senators 
for  each  province,  and  the  second  of  deputies  elected  by  the 
people.  Army — About  1,600  men.  Education — Only  about 

75,000  of  the  population  can  read  or  write. 

PERU  , — The  population  of  Peru  includes  about  350,000  un- 
civilized Indians.  By  the  terms  of  the  constitution  the  Roman 
Catholic  is  declared  the  religion  of  the  state,  and  the  public  ex- 
ercise of  any  other  is  prohibited.  At  the  census  of  1876  there 
were  5,087  Protestants  and  498  Jews.  Government — Repub- 
lican. Executive,  the  President,  assisted  by  a Cabinet  of  5 
Ministers.  Legislative,  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives, the  former  composed  of  deputies  (i  for  every  30,000  inhabit- 
ants), and  the  latter  of  representatives  nominated  by  the  pro- 
vincial electoral  colleges  of  each  department.  During  the  war 
with  Chili  the  army  was  raised  to  about  19,000  men;  it  now 
numbers  about  5,900.  The  fleet  consists  of  2 cruisers  and  2 
small  troop  ships.  Education — By  a return  of  1880  the  facili- 
ties provided  for  education  consist  of  i university  at  Lima,  5 
lesser  universities,  45  higher  class  schools  and  650  public  and 
private  schools  with  32,555  pupils. 

BOLIVIA. — Bolivia  is  the  most  centrally  situated  state  of 
South  America,  and,  with  the  exception  of  Paraguay,  is  the 
only  one  without  a seaboard.  Religion — The  mixed  races 
forming  the  population  are  regarded  as  at  least  nominally 
Christian.  Government — Republican.  Executive,  the  Presi- 
dent, assisted  by  a Vice-President  and  a cabinet  of  5 Ministers. 
Legislative,  the  Congress,  consisting  of  the  Senate  and  the 
House  of  Representatives,  both  elected  by  universal  suffrage. 
The  standing  army  consists  of  1,013  officers  and  2,000  men,  and 
costs  upwards  of  two-thirds  of  the  public  revenue.  Education — 
According  to  a report  issued  in  1884,  the  schools  and  universi- 
ties were  attended  by  only  12,000  pupils  and  students,  or  about 
5 per  cent,  of  the  population  of  school  age.  There  are  four  uni- 
versities. 


121 


MISSISSIPPI  ranks  second  among  the  States  in  cotton,  fifth  in 
rice,  sixth  in  mules  and  molasses,  seventh  in  sugar,  eighteenth  in 
population.  The  first  settlers  in  Mississippi  were  French,  at  Nat- 
chez, 1716.  Admitted  into  the  Union  in  1817. 


MISSOURI  ranks  first  in  mules,  third  in  oxen,  hogs,  torn  and 
copper,  fifth  in  population,  sixth  in  iron  ors,  wool  and  horses, 
seventh  in  oats,  eighth  in  wheat  and  tobacco,  ninth  in  miles  of 
railway,  sheep  and  potatoes.  First  settlement,  French,  at  Ste. 
Genevieve,  1764.  Admitted  into  the  Union  in  1821. 


123 


THE  WORLD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE. 

BRAZIL. — The  most  extensive  and  most  prosperous  of  the 
South  American  States.  The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  established 
religion  of  the  state,  though  all  other  sects  are  tolerated. 
Government — Constitutional  and  hereditary  monarchy.  Execu- 
tive, the  Emperor,  assisted  by  a responsible  Ministry.  Legisla- 
tive, the  General  Legislative  Assembly,  consisting  of  the  Senate 
♦vith  6o  members,  and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  with  125  mem- 
bers. Army — Peace  footing,  15,048  men  and  6,847  gendarmerie. 
War  footing,  32,000  ^men.  Navy — 65  ships  (9  ironclads) 
/nanned  by  5,788  men.  Education— In  1885  there  were  5,520 
public,  957  private  schools,  and  286  “colleges”  attended  by  "435,- 
997  pi^pils  in  all. 

PARAGUAY  is  one  of  the  smallest,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  Bolivia,  the  only  landlocked  state  of  South  America.  The 
Roman  Catholic  is  the  established  religion  of  the  state,  but  the 
free  exercise  of  other  religions  is  permitted.  Government — 
Republican.  Executive,  the  President,  assisted  by  a Cabinet  of 
5 Ministers.  Legislative,  the  Congress,  composed  of  the  Senate 
and  the  House  of  Deputies.  The  armed  defense  forces  consist 
of  500  men  and  a fleet  of  3 river  steamers.  Education — In  1885 
there  were  99  state  public  schools,  with  3,676  pupils;  50  private 
schools  with  1,424  pupils,  and  a national  college  with  150 
students. 

URUGUAY  is  the  smallest  of  the  South  American  States. 
The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  state  religion,  but  there  is  complete 
toleration  of  all  sects.  Government — Republican.  Executive, 
the  President,  assisted  by  a council  of  five  members.  Legisla- 
tive, the  parliament,  composed  of  the  Senate  and  the  Chamber  of 
Representatives,  the  former  c®nsisting  of  19  members,  the 
latter  of  53.  The  defense  forces  consist  of  3,540  regulars,  a 
national  guard  of  20,000  men,  5 river  steamers  and  3 gunboats. 
Education — One  university  at  Montevideo,  attended  in  1886  by 
1,452  students;  341  public  schools  with  28,380  pupils,  and,  in 
1885,  429  private  schools  with  20,899  scholars. 

ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC.— -Religion — Roman  Catholic,  but 
all  creeds  are  tolerated.  Government — Republican.  Executive, 
the  President.  Legislative,  the  National  Congress,  composed  of 
the  Senate  with  30  members,  and  the  House  of  Deputies  with 
86.  Arm}^ — 7»324  men,  exclusive  of  the  national  guard  of  about 
350,000  men.  Navy — 39  ships  (3  ironclads)  manned  by 
2,150  men.  Education — In  1885  there  were  2 universities  at- 
tended by  880  students,  various  superior  schools,  15  lyceums 
with  3,189  pupils,  and,  in  1886,  3,415  elementary  schools  with 
180,768  scholars. 

CHILL — Religion — Roman  Catholic,  but  all  other  religions 
124 


POLAR  EX  PL  ORA  TION. 


are  protected.  Government — Republican.  Executive,  the 
President.  Legislative,  the  Senate  of  43  members,  and  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  of  126.  Armj — 6,510  regulars,  and  the 
national  guard  of  53,741  men.  Navy — 32  ships  (3  ironclads)  with 
2,385  men.  Education — One  university  and  numerous  lyceums 
attended,  in  1886,  by  5,900  students;  532  private  schools  with  28,- 
242  pupils,  and  862  public  primary  schools  with  78,810  scholars- 

Polar  Exploratfon 

Really  begins  with  the  search  for  the  northeast  passage.  With 
this  object  Willoughby  left  England  with  three  ships  in  1553. 
Nova  Zembla  was  sighted,  but  the  voyage  was  disastrous,  two 
ships  were  lost  and  with  them  perished  the  first  leader  of  an  Arc- 
tic expedition.  In  1556  another  expedition,  under  Burroughs, 
set  out  for  the  same  purpose,  but  without  success.  The  north- 
east passage  proving  impracticable,  efforts  were  directed  to  the 
northwest.  bTobisher  sailed  in  1576  and  discovered  Meta  In- 
cognita, a part  of  the  present  Baffin  Land.  Ten  years  later 
Davis  navigated  the  strait  which  bears  his  name,  advancing 
northward  to  72°  N.  Barents,  a Dutch  seaman,  made  three 
voyages  to  the  northeast.  In  1596,  on  his  third  voyage,  he  dis- 
covered Spitzbergen  and  reached  a latitude  of  80°  N.  Sailing 
thence  to  Nova  Zembla  he  doubled  the  north  point  and  wintered 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  island.  Hudson,  between  the  years 
1607-1610,  made  four  voyages;  two  of  these  were  to  the  north- 
east, and  a latitude  of  80^  23'  N.  was  attained.  On  his  third 
voyage  he  discovered  Hudson  River,  and  in  the  following  year, 
1610,  the  strait  and  bay  since  named  after  him.  These  dis- 
coveries were  supplemented  in  1616,  when  Baffin  sailed  up 
Davis  Strait  into  Baffin’s  Bay.  During  the  eighteenth  century 
Russian  explorations  made  great  progress.  The  entire  northern 
coast  of  Siberia  was  gradually  discovered,  while,  in  1728,  Bering 
examined  the  strait  between  Asia  and  America,  and  in  1741 
Liakov,  a Russian  merchant,  the  islands  now  known  as  New 
Siberia.  The  numerous  expeditions  of  the  present  century  have 
driven  the  unknown  regions  of  the  north  into  comparatively  nar- 
row limits.  In  1819  Parry  passed  through  Lancaster  Sound  and 
wintered  on  Melville  Island;  eight  years  later  he  sailed  to  Spitz- 
bergen, and  traveling  northward  on  sledges,  reached  82^  45'  N. 
Of  the  numerous  expeditions  which  left  England  in  search  of 
Franklin,  who  had  sailed  in  1845,  that  under  M’Clure  in  1850 
was,  perhaps,  the  most  important,  since  the  northwest  passage 
was  then  traversed  for  the  first  time.  In  1853  Kane  con- 
siderably extended  knowledge  in  Smith  Sound,  while  in  1874  the 
Austrian  expedition  discovered  the  archipelago  of  Franz  Josef 
Land.  The  Nares  expedition  of  1875-6,  passing  through  Smith 

125 


MONTANA  in  1890  ranked  fourth  among  the  States  and  Terri- 
tories in  silver,  fifth  in  gold,  fifteenth  in  cattle,  forty-seventh  in 
miles  of  railway  and  forty-fourth  in  population.  First  settlement, 
by  Americans,  in  1852.  Organized  as  a Territory  in  1864;  admitted 
to  the  Union  in  1889. 


120 


NEBRASKA  ranks  eighth  among  the  States  of  the 

corn  and  barley,  ninth  in  rye, twenty-sixth  inpopulation, 
was  first  settled  by  immigrants  from  the  other  States, 
into  the  Union  in  1867. 


Union  in 
Nebraska 
Admitted 


127 


THE  WORTHS  LARGEST  CITIES. 

Sound,  wintered  farther  north  than  any  previous  expedition,  and 
a sledding  party  under  Markham  reached  83O  20',  a latitude  only 
surpassed  by  that  of  Lockwood,  in  the  Greeley  expedition,  who, 
in  1882,  stood  under  83^  24'  N.  Finally,  in  1878,  Norden- 
skjold  performed  in  the  “Vega”  that  northeast  passage  which 
Willoughby  had  attempted  over  300  years  before/ 


The  World’s  Largest  Cities. 

The  following  information  is  often  inquired  for,  and  as  it  may- 
be useful  in  many  cases  for  reference,  we  have  compiled  a table 
of  the  largest  cities  in  the  world,  with  their  populations  as  stated 
by  the  latest  authorities.  In  the  absence  of  any  official  census, 
the  Chinese  cities  have  simply  to  be  estimated,  and,  of  course,r 
must  be  accepted  as  an  approximation  only.  We  have  not  given 
any  city  whose  population  is  below  500,000,  though  there  are 
many  we  could  enumerate  which  closely  approach  that  figure.  It 
will  be  seen  that  in  the  35  cities  tabulated  below  there  are  32,- 
510,319  souls,  or  nearly  the  population  of  the  British  Isles,  a fact 
which  cannot  be  grasped  in  a moment  by  any  ordinary  intellect. 

Aitichi,  Japan 1,332,050  Moscow,  Russia 611,074 

■ ■ New  York,  N.  Y.. . .1,513,501 

Paris,  France 2,269,023 

Pekalonga,  Java 505,201 

Pekin,  China 800,000 

Philadelphia,  Pa 1,046,252 

St.  Petersburg,  Russia.  766,964 
,099,133  Sartama,  Japan 962,917 

700.000  Sian,  China 1,000,000 

630.000  St.  Louis,  Mo 460,357 

514,048  Tat-Seen-Loo,  China.  500,000 

600.000  Tien-Tsin,  China 950,000 

800.000  Tokio,  Japan  ......  987,887 

600.000  Tschautchau-fu,  Ch’a.  1,000,000 

500.000  Tsin-Tchoo,  China.  . . 800,000 

573.000  Vienna,  Austria 726,105 

.3,955,819  Woo-chang,  China.  . . 800,000 

500,900 


Bangkok,  Siam 500,000 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 804,377 

Berlin,  Prussia  1,122,330 

Calcutta,  India.... ...  766,298 

Canton,  China 1,500,000 

Changchoofoo,  China.  1,000,000  _ 

Chicago,  111  ....  ...  .1,099,133  Sartama,  Japan 


Constantinople,  T’k’y . 

Foo-choo,  China 

Glasgow,  Scotland . . . 
Hang-Chow-foo,  Ch’a. 
Hang-Tcheon,  China. 

Han-Kow,  China 

King-te-Chiang,  Chi’a 
Liverpool,  England.  . . 
London,  England.. 
Madrid,  Spain  .... 


Estimated  Age  of  the  Earth. — According  to  geologi- 
cal computation,  the  minimum  age  of  the  earth  since  the  forma- 
tion of  *^he  primitive  soils  is  21,000,000  years — 6,700,000  years  for 
the  primordial  formations,  6,400,000  years  for  the  primary  age, 

2,300,000  years  for  the  secondary"  age,  and  460,000  years  for  th^ 
tertiarv  ag<,  and  100,000  since  the  appearance  of  man  upon  the 
globe. 


128 


THE  CENSUS  OF  1890, 


THE  POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES- 
OFFICIAL  TABULATION. 

The  population  of  the  United  States  on  June  i,  1890,  as  shown 
by  the  official  count,  completed  in  1891,  exclusive  of  white  persons 
in  the  Indian  Territory,  Indians  on  reservations,  and  Alaska,  was 
62,622,250.  The  following  comparative  table  gives  the  figures  for 
each  State.  The  black  figures  after  the  name  of  the  State  show  that 
State’s  rank  as  regards  population.  New  York  still  heads  the  list, 
as  in  1880,  and  is  followed  by  Pennsylvania.  Illinois  changes 
places  with  Ohio,  and  is  now  third.  Of  the  other  changes  in  the 
list  the  most  marked  are  those  of  Texas,  which  rises  from  No.  ii 
to  No.  7;  Kentucky,  which  drops  from  8 to  ii;  Minnesota,  which 
rises  from  26  to  20;  Nebraska,  which  rises  from  30  to  26;  Mary- 
land, which  drops  from  23  to  27;  Colorado,  which  rises  from  35 
to  31:  Vermont,  which  drops  from  32  to  36;  Washington,  which 
rises  from  42  to  34:  Delaware,  which  drops  from  38  to  42;  Nevada, 
which  drops  from  43  to  49,  and  Arizona,  which  drops  from  44  to  48. 


STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. 

POPULATION. 

INCREASE 

FROM  1880 

TO  1890. 

INCREASE 

FROM  1870 

TO  1880. 

1890. 

1880. 

1870. 

Percentage. 

Percentage. 

The  United  States 

62,622,250 

50,155,783 

38,558.371 

24.86 

30.08 

North  Atlantic  Div . .. 

17,401,545 

14,507,407 

12,298,730 

19.95 

17.96 

Maine 

.30 

661,086 

648,936 

626,915 

1.87 

3.51 

New  Hampshire 

.33 

376,530 

346,991 

318,300 

8.51 

9.01 

Vermont 

.36 

332,422 

332,286 

330,551 

0.04 

0.52 

Massachusetts 

. 6 

2,238,943 

1,783,085 

1.457,351 

25.57 

22.35 

Rhode  Island 

35 

345.506 

276,531 

217.353 

24.94 

27.23 

Connecticut 

.29 

746,258 

622,700 

537,454 

19.84 

15.86 

New  York 

. 1 

5.997.853 

5,082,871 

4.382,759 

18.00 

15.97 

New  Jersey 

,18 

1.444.933 

1,131,116 

906,096 

27.74 

24.83 

Pennsylvania 

2 

5,258,014 

4,282,891 

3.521,951 

22.77 

21.61 

South  Atlantic  Div  . . . 

8,857,920 

7,597.197 

5,853,610 

16.59 

29.79 

Delaware 

42 

168,493 

146,608 

125,015 

14-93 

17.27 

Maryland 

.27 

1.042,390 

934.943 

780,894 

11.49 

19.73 

District  of  Columbia.39 

230,392 

177.624 

131,700 

29.71 

34.87 

Virginia 

15 

1,655,980 

1,512,565 

1,225,163 

9.48 

23 . 46 

West  Virginia 

28 

762,794 

618,457 

442,014 

23.34 

39.92 

North  Carolina 

16 

1,617,947 

1,399.750 

1,071,361 

15.59 

30.65 

South  Carolina 

23 

1,151.149 

995,577 

705,606 

15.63 

41.10 

Georgia 

12 

1.837.353 

1,542,180 

1,184,109 

19.14 

30.24 

Florida 

32 

391,422 

269,493 

187,748 

45.24 

43.54 

129* 


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Cities  and  Towns  of  over  8,000  Population  — Continued. 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS. 

1890. 

1880. 

CITIES  AND  TOWNS. 

1890. 

1880. 

Binghamton,  N,  Y... 

35,005 

17,317 

Denver,  Colo 

106,713 

35,629 

Birmingham,  Ala 

26,178 

3,086 

Des  Moines,  Iowa 

50,093 

22,408 

Bloomington,  111 

20,048 

17,180 

Detroit,  Mich 

205,876 

116,340 

Boston,  Mass 

448,477 

362,839 

Dover,  N.  H 

12,790 

11,687 

Braddock,  Pa 

8,561 

3,310 

Dubuque,  Iowa 

Duluth,  Minn 

30,311 

22,254. 

Bradford,  Pa 

io,5H 

9,197 

33,115 

9,416 

3,48.3 

Bridgeport,  Conn 

48,866 

27,643 

Dunkirk,  N.  Y 

7,248 

Bridgeton,  N.  J 

11,424 

8,722 

Dunmore,  Pa 

East  Liverpool,  Ohio. 

8,315 

5,151^ 

Brockton,  Mass 

27,294 

13,608 

10,956 

5,56a 

Brookline,  Mass 

12,103 

8,057 

Easton,  Pa 

14,481 

11,924- 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 

Brunswick,  Ga 

806,343 

566,663 

East  Portland,  Ore. . . 

10,532 

2,934- 

8,459 

2,891 

East  Providence,  R.  I 

8,422 

5,056- 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

255,664 

155,134 

East  St.  Louis,  III 

15,^69 

9,185 

10,119 

8,787 

Burlington,  Iowa 

22,565 

19,450 

Eau  Claire,  Wis 

17,415 

Burlington,  N.  J 

8,222 

6,090 

Elgin,  111 

17,823 

Burlington,  Vt 

14,590 

11,365 

Elizabeth  City,  N.  J . . 

37,764 

28,229 

Butler,  Pa 

8,734 

3,163 

Elkhart,  Ind 

11,360 

6,953 

Butte,  Mont 

10,723 

3,363 

Elmira.  N.  Y 

29,708 

20,541 

Cairo,  111 

10,324 

9,011 

El  Paso,  Texas 

10,338 

73^ 

Cambridge,  Mass .... 

70,028 

52,669 

Erie,  Pa 

40,634 

27,737 

Camden,  N.  J 

58,313 

41,659 

Evansville,  Ind 

50,756 

29,280 

Canton,  Ohio 

26,189 

12,258 

Everett,  Mass 

1 1,068 

4,159 

Carbondale,  Pa 

10,833 

7,714 

Fall  River,  Mass 

74,398 

48,961 

Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa.. 

18,020 

10,104 

Findlay,  Ohio 

18,553 

4,633 

Charlston,  S.  C 

54,955 

49,984 

Fitchburg,  Mass 

22,037 

12,429 

Charlotte,  N.  C 

11,557 

7,094 

Flint,  Mich 

9,803 

8,409 

Chattanooga,  Tenn.  . . 

29,100 

12,892 

Flushing,  N.  Y 

10,868 

a 6,683 

Chicago,  111 I 

,099,850 

503,185 

Fond  du  Lac,  Wis. . . . 

12,024 

13,094 

Chicopee,  Mass 

14,050 

11,286 

Fort  Scott,  Kans 

11,946 

5,372 

Chillicothe,  Ohio ..... 

11,288 

8,670 

10,938 

Fort  Smith,  Ark 

11,311 

3,099 

Chippewa  Falls,  Wis. 

3,982 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 

35,393 

26,880 

Chelsea,  Mass 

27,909 

21,782 

Fort  Worth,  Texas... 

23,076 

6,663 

Chester,  Pa 

20,226 

1 1 , 690 

14,997 

Framingham,  Mas^.  . . 

9,239 

6,235 

Cheyenne,  Wyo 

3,456 

Frederick,  Md 

8,193 

8,659 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 

296,908 

255,139 

Freeport,  111 

10,189 

8,516 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

261,353 

160,146 

Fresno,  Cal 

10,818 

1,112 

Clinton,  Iowa  

13,619 

9,052 

Galesburg,  111 

15,264 

11,437 

Clinton,  Mass 

10,424 

8,029 

19,416 

Galveston,  Texas  .... 

29,084 

22,248 

Cohoes,  N.  Y 

22,509 

Gardner,  Mass. ...... 

8,424 

4,988 

Colorado  Spr’gs,  Colo 

11,140 

4,226 

Gloucester,  Mass.  ... 

24,651 

19,329 

Columbia,  Pa 

10,599 

8,312 

10,036 

Gloversville,  N.  Y. . . . 

13,864 

7,133 

32,016 

7,464 

Columbia,  S.  C 

15,353 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 

■60,278 

Columbus,  Ga 

17,303 

10,123 

51,647 

Green  Bay,  Wis 

9,069 

8,607 

Columbus,  Ohio 

88, 150 

Greenville,  S.  C 

6,160 

Concord,  N.  H 

17,004 

13,843 

Greenwich,  Conn 

10,131 

7,892 

Corning,  N.  Y 

8,550 

4,802 

18,063 

Hagerstown,  Md 

10,118 

17,565 

6,627 

Council  Bluffs,  Iowa. . 

21,474 

Hamilton,  Ohio 

12,122 

Covington,  Ky 

37,371 

29,720 

Hannibal,  Mo 

12,857 

11,074 

Cranston,  R.  I 

8,099 

5,940 

Harrisburg,  Pa 

39,385 

30, 762 

.Cumberland,  Md 

12,729 

10,693 

Harrison,  N J 

Hartford,  Conn 

8,338 

6,898 

Cumberland,  R.  I 

8,090 

6,445 

53,230 

42,015 

Dallas,  Texas 

38,067 

10,358 

Hastings,  Neb 

13,584 

2,817 

Danbury,  Conn 

16,552 

11,666 

Haverhill,  Mass 

27,412 

18,472 

Danville,  111 

11,491 

7,733 

Hazelton,  Pa 

11,872 

6,935 

Danville,  Va 

10,305 

7,526 

Helena,  Mont 

13,834 

3,624 

Davenport,  Iowa 

26,872 

21,831 

Henderson,  Ky 

8,835 

5,365 

Dayton,  Ohio 

61,220 
19,84 1 

38,678 

Hoboken,  N.  J 

43,648 

30,999 

Decatur,  III 

9,547 

Holyoke,  Mass 

35,637 

21,915 

Delaware,  Ohio 

8,224 

6,894 

Hornellsville,  N.  Y. . . 

10,996 

8,195 

Denison,  Texas 

10,958 

3,975 

Hot  Springs,  Ark 

8,086 

3,554 

T32 


Cities  and  Towns  of  over  8,000  Population  — Continued. 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS. 

1890. 

0 

00 

00 

CITIES  AND  TOWNS. 

1890. 

1880. 

Houston,  Texas 

27,557 

16,513 

Macon,  Ga 

22,746 

12,749 

Hudson,  N.  Y 

9,970 

8,670 

Madison,  Ind 

Madison,  Wis. 

8,937 

13,426 

8,945 

Huntington.  W.  Va  .. 

10,  to8 

3,174 

10,324 

Hutchinson,  Kans  ... 

8,682 

1,540 

Mahanoy,  Pa 

11,286 

7,181 

Hyde  Park,  Mass. . . . 

10,193 

7,088 

Malden,  Mass 

23,031 

12,017 

Indianapolis,  Ind  .... 
Ironton,  Ohio 

105,436 

75,056 

Manchester,  Conn. . . . 

8,222 

6,462 

10,939 

8,857 

Manchester,  N.  H 

44,126 

32,630 

Iron  Mountain,  Mich. 
Ishpeming,  Mich 

8,599 

11,197 

6,039 

Manchester,  Va 

Manistee,  Mich 

9.246 

12,812 

5,729 

6,930 

Ithaca,  N.  Y 

11,079 

9,105 

Mankato,  Minn 

8,838 

5,550 

Jackson,  Mich 

20,798 

16,105 

Mansfield,  Ohio 

13,473 

9,859 

Jackson,  Tenn 

Jacksonville,  Fla 

10,039 

5,377 

Marblehead,  Mass 

8,202 

7,467 

17,201 

7,650 

Marietta,  Ohio 

8,273 

5,444 

Jacksonville,  111 

10,740 

16,038 

10, 927 

Marinette,  Wis 

11,523 

8,769 

2, 750 

Jamestown,  N.  Y 

9,357 

Marion,  Ind 

3, 182 

Janesville,  Wis 

10,836 

9,018 

Marion,  Ohio 

8,327 

3,899 

Jeffersonville,  Ind. . . . 

10,666 

9,357 

Marlborough,  Mass  . . 

13,805 

10,127 

4,690 

Jersey  City,  N.  J.... 

163,003 

120,722 

Marquette,  Mich 

9,093 

Johnston,  R.  I 

9,778 

5,765 

Marshalltown,  Iowa.. 

8,914 

6,240 

6,836 

Johnstown,  Pa 

21,805 

8,380 

Massillon,  Ohio 

10,092 

Joliet,  111 

2^,264 

11,657 

Meadville,  Pa 

9,520 

8,860 

Joplin,  Mo 

9,943 

7,038 

Medford,  Mass 

11,079 

7,573 

Kalamazoo,  Mich 

Kankakee,  111 “. . . 

17,853 

9,025 

11,937 

5,651 

Melrose,  Mass 

Memphis,  Tenn 

8,519 

64,495 

4,560 

33,592 

Kansas  City,  Kans... 

38,316 

3,20c 

Menominee,  Mich .... 

10,630 

3,288 

Kansas  City,  Mo 

132,716 

55,785 

Meriden,  Conn 

21,652 

15,540 

Kearney,  Neb 

8,074 

1,782 

Meridian,  Miss 

10,624 

4,008 

Keokuk,  Iowa 

14,101 

18,080 

12,117 

9,890 

Michigan  City,  Ind. . . 

10,776 

7.366 

Key  West,  Fla 

Kingston,  N.  Y 

Middletown,  Conn... 

9,013 

6,826 

21,261 

18,344 

9,693 

Middletown,  N.  Y. . . . 

11,977 

8,494 

Knoxville,  Tenn 

22,535 

Milford,  Mass 

8,780 

9,310 

Kokomo,  Ind 

8,261 

4,042 

Millville,  N.  J 

10,002 

7,660 

La  Crosse,  Wis 

25,090 

14,505 

Milwaukee,  Wis 

204,468 

115,587 

Lafayatte,  Ind 

16,243 

14,860 

25,769 

Minneapolis,  Minn . . . 

164,738 

46,887 

Lancaster,  Pa 

32,01 1 

Moberly,  Mo 

8,215 

6,070 

Lansing,  Mich 

13,102 

8,319 

Mobile,  Ala 

31,076 

29,132 

Lansinburg,  N.  Y. . . . 

10,550 

7,432 

Moline,  111 

12,000 
. 21,883 

7,800 

Laredo,  Texas 

11,319 

9,855 

3,521 

Montgomery,  Ala. . . . 

16,713 

La  .Salle,  111 

7,847 

Mount  Carmel,  Pa... 

8,254 

2,378 

Lawrence,  Kans 

Lawrence,  Mass 

9,997 

8,510 

Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y. 

10,677 

4,586 

44,654 

39,151 

Muncie,  Ind 

11*345 

5,219 

Leadville,  Colo 

11,212 

19,768 

14,820 

16,546 

Muscatine,  Iowa. 

11,454 

8,295 

11,262 

Leavenworth,  Kans. . . 

Muskegon,  Mich 

22,702 

Lebanon,  Pa 

14,664 

8,778 

Nanticoke,  Pa 

10,044 

3,884 

Lewiston,  Me 

Lexington,  Ky 

21,701 

19,083 

Nashua,  N.  H 

19,311 

13,397 

21,567 

16,656 

Nashville,  Tenn  

76,168 

43,350 

Lima,  Ohio 

15,987 

7,567 

Natchez,  Miss 

10,101 

7,058 

Lincoln  Neb 

55,154 

13,003 

Natick,  Mass 

9,118 

8,479 

Lincoln,  R.  I 

20,355 

13.765 

Nebraska  City,  Neb.. 

11,494 

4,183 

Little  Falls,  N.  Y 

8,783 

6,910 

New  Albany,  Ind 

21,059 

16,423 

Little  Rock,  Ark 

25,874 

13,138 

Newark,  N.  J 

181,830 

136,508 

Lockport,  N.  Y 

16,038 

13,522 

Newark,  Ohio 

14,270 

9,600 

Logansport,  Ind 

13,328 

11,198 

New  Bedford,  Mass.. 

40,733 

26,845 

Long  Island  City,  N.  Y 

30,506 

17,129 

New  Brighton,  N.  Y. . 

16,423 

12,679 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 

50,395 

11,183 

New  Britain,  Conn  . . . 

19,007 

11, 800 

Louisville  Ky 

161,129 

123,758 

New  Brunswick,  N.  J 

18,603 

17,166 

Lowell,  Mass 

77,696 

59,475 

Newburg,  N.  Y 

23,087 

18,049 

Lynchburg,  Va 

19,709 

15,959  Newburyport,  Mass.. 

13,947 

13,538 

Lynn,  Mass 

55,727 

38,274lNewcastle,  -Pa 

It, 600 

8,418 

McKeesport,  Pa 

20,741 

8,212, New  Haven,  Conn  . . . 

81,298 

62,882 

129 


NEVADA,  in  the  census  of  1880,  ranks  second  among  the  States 
in  gold,  fourth  in  silver,  thirty-eighth  in  population.  First  set- 
tled by  Americans,  immigrants  from  the  other  States,  in  1850.  Ad- 
mitted to  the  Union  in  1864. 


1 


NEW  HAMPSHIKE  ranks  third  in  manufacture  of  cotton  goods, 
fifteenth  in  potatoes,  thirty-first  in  population.  First  settle- 
ment, English,  at  Little  Harbor,  1623.  VERMONT  ranks  fourth  in 
copper,  seventh  in  hops  and  buckwheat,  thirty-second  in  popu- 
lation. First  settlement,  English,  Fort  Dummer,  1764. 


131 


Cities  and  Towns  of  over  8,000  Population  •— Continued. 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS. 

1890. 

1880. 

CITIES  AHD  TOWNS. 

1890. 

i88o. 

New  London,  Conn. . . 

13.757 

10,537 

Quincy,  Mass 

16,723 

10,570 

New  Orleans,  La 

242,039 

216,090 

Racine,  Wis 

21,014 

16,031 

Newport,  Ky 

24,918 

20,433 

Raleigh,  N.  C 

12,678 

9.265 

Newport,  R.  I 

19.457 

15,693 

Readmg,  Pa 

Richmond,  Ind 

58,661 

43.278 

New  Rochelle,  NY... 

8,318 

5,276 

16,608 

12,742 

Newton,  Mass 

24.379 

16,995 

Richmond,  Va 

.81,388 

63,600 

New  York,  N.  Y 

1,515.301 

34.871 

1,206,299 

21,966 

13.063 

Roanoke,  Va 

16, 1 59 
133.896 

Norfolk,  Va-. 

Rochester,  N.  Y 

89.366 

Norristown,  Pa 

19.791 

Rockford,  111 

23,584 

13.129 

North  Adams,  Mass. . 

16,074 

10,191 

Rock  Island,  111 

13.634 

11.659 

Northampton,  Mass.. 

14.990 

12,172 

13.956 

Rockland,  Me 

8,174 

7.599 

Norwalk,  Conn 

17.747 

Rome,  N.  Y 

14,991 

12,194 

Norwich,  Conn 

16,156 

15,112 

Rutland,  Vt 

11,760 

12,149 

Oakland,  Cal 

48,682 

34,555 

Sacramento,  Cal 

26,386 

21,420 

Ogden,  Utah 

14,889 

6,069 

Saginaw,  Mich.. 

Saint  Joseph,  Mo.... 

46,322 

29.541 

Ogdensburg,  N.  Y. . . 

11,662 

10,341 

52,324 

32,431 

Oil  City,  Pa 

10,932 

7.315 

.Saint  Louis,  Mo 

451,770 

350,518 

Omaha,  Neb 

140,452 

30,518 

Saint  Paul,  Minn 

133,156 

41.473 

Orange,  N.  J 

18,844 

13.207 

Salem,  Mass 

30,801 

27.563 

Oshkosh,  Wis 

22,836 

15.748 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 

44.843 

20, 768 

Oswego,  N.  Y 

21,842 

21,116 

San  Antonio,  Texas.. 

37.673 

20,550 

Ottawa  City,  111 

9.985 

7.834 

San  Diego,  Cal 

16,159 

2,637 

Ottumwa,  Iowa 

14,001 

9,004 

Sandusky,  Ohio 

18,471 

15,838 

Owensborough,  Ky. . . 

9.837 

6,231 

San  Francisco,  Cal. . . 

298,997 

233.959 

Paducah,  Ky 

13,076 

8,036 

San  Jose,  Cal 

Saratoga  Spr’gs,  N.  Y 

18,060 

12,567 

Paris,  Texas 

8,254 

8,408 

3.980 

11.975 

8,421 

Parkersburg,  W.  Va. . 

6,582 

Savannah,  Ga 

43.189 

30,709 

Passaic,  N.  J 

13.028 

6,532 

Schenectady,  N.  Y.  . . 

19,902 

13.655 

Paterson,  N.  J 

78,347 

51.031 

Scranton,  Pa 

75.215 

45.850 

Pawtucket,  R.  I 

27,633 

19,030 

Seattle,  Wash 

42,837 

' 3.553 

Peabody,  Mass 

10, 158 
9.676 

9,028 

Sedalia,  Mo 

14,068 

9.561 

Peekskill,  N Y 

6,893 

.Shamokin,  Pa 

14.403 

8,184 

Pensacola,  Fla 

31.750 

6,845 

Sheboygan,  Wis 

Shenandoah,  Pa  

16,359 

7.314 

Peoria,  111 

41,024 

9.512 

29,259 

4,808 

15.944 

11.979 

10. 147 

Perth  Amboy,  N,  J . . . 

Shreveport,  La 

8,009 

6,578 

Petersburg,  Va 

22,680 

21,656 

Sing  Sing,  N.  Y 

9.352 

Philadelphia,  Pa : 

[,046,964 

847,170 

Sioux  City,  Iowa 

37.806 

7.366 

Phillipsburg,  N.  J.  ... 

8,644 

7. 181 

Sioux  Falls,  S.  Dak.. 

10,177 

2,164 

Phoenixville,  Pa 

8,514 

6,682 

Somerville,  Mass 

40,152 

24.933 

Pine  Bluff,  Ark 

9.952 

3.203 

South  Bend,  Ind 

21,819 

13.280 

Piqua,  Ohio 

9.090 

6,031 

South  Bethlehem,  Pa. 

10,302 

4.925 

Pittsburg,  Pa 

238,617 

156,389 

South  Omaha,  Neb. . . 

8,062 

Pittsfield,  Mass 

1 7, 28 1 

13.364 

Spencer,  Mass 

Spokane  Falls,  Wash. 

8,747 

7.466 

Pittston,  Pa 

10,302 

1 1,267 

7,472 

19,922 

350 

Plainfield,  N.  J 

8,125 

Springfield,  111 

24.963 

19.743 

Plattsmouth,  Neb.... 

8,392 

4.175 

Springfield,  Mass.... 

44.179 

33,340 

Plymouth,  Pa 

9.344 

6,065 

Springfield,  Mo 

21,850 

6,522 

Port  Huron,  Mich. . . . 

13.543 

8,883 

Springfield,  Ohio 

31.895 

20,730 

Port  Jervis,  N.  Y 

9.327 

8,678 

Stamford,  Conn 

15,700 

11,297 

Portland,  Me 

36,425 

33.810 

Steelton,  Pa 

9.250 

2,447 

Portland,  Ore 

46,385 

17.577 

Steubenville,  Ohio. . . . 

13.394 

12,093 

Portsmouth,  N.  H . . . . 

9,827 

9.690 

Stillwater,  Minn 

11,260 

9.055 

Portsmouth,  Ohio.... 

12,394 

11.321 

.Stockton,  Cal 

14.424 

10,282 

Portsmouth,  Va 

13,268 

11,390 

Streator,  III 

11,414 

5,157 

Pottstown,  Pa 

13.285 

5.305 

Superior,  Wis 

11,983 

Pottsville,  Pa 

14,117 

22,206 

13.253 

Syracuse,  NY 

Tacoma,  Wash 

88,143 

51.792 

Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.. 

20,207 

36,006 

1,098 

Providence,  R.  I 

132,146 

104,857 

Taunton,  Mass 

25.448 

21,213 

Pueblo,  Colo 

24.558 

3,2i7|Terre  Haute,  Ind 

30,217 

26,042 

(Junicy,  111 

31.494 

27,268, Tiffin,  Ohio 

10,801 

7.879 

132 


Cities  and  Towns  of  over  8,000  Population  — Concluded. 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS. 

1890. 

1880. 

CITIES  AND  TOWNS. 

1890. 

1880. 

Titusville,  Pa 

8,073 

0,046 

Westfield,  Mass 

9,805 

7,587 

Toledo,  Ohio 

81,434 

50,137 

West  Troy,  N.  Y 

Weymouth,  Mass 

12,967 

8,820 

Topeka,  Kans 

31,007 

15,452 

10,866 

10,570 

Trenton,  N.  J 

57,458 

29,910 

Wheeling,  W.  Va 

35,013 

30,737 

Troy,  N.  Y 

60,956 

56,747 

Wichita,  Kans 

23,853 

4,911 

Union,  N.  J 

10,643 

5,849 

Wilkesbarre,  Pa 

37,718 

23,339 

Utica,  N.  Y 

44,007 

33.914 

Williamsport,  Pa 

27,132 

8,648 

18,934 

Vernon,  Conn 

8,808 

6,9*5 

Willimantic,  Conn 

6,608 

Vicksburg,  Miss 

13,373 

11,814 

Wilmington,  Del 

61,431 

42,478 

Vincennes,  Ind 

8,853 

7,680 

Wilmington,  N.  C . 

20,056 

17,350 

Waco,  Texas 

14,445 

7,295 

Winona,  Minn 

18,208 

10,208 

Waltham,  Mass 

18,707 

11,712 

12,164 

Winston,  N.  C 

8,018 

2,854 

Warwick,  R.  I 

17,761 

Woburn,  Mass 

13,499 

10,931 

Washington,  D,  C. . . . 

230,392 

177,624 

Woonsocket,  R.  I . . . . 

20,830 

16,050 

Waterbury,  Conn 

38,646 

17,806 

10,697 

Worcester,  Mass 

84,655 

58,291 

Watertown,  N.  Y 

14,725 

Yonkers,  N.  Y 

32,033 

18,892 

Watertown,  Wis 

8,755 

7,883 

York,  Pa 

20,793 

13,940 

Wausau,  Wis 

West  Bay  City,  Mich. 
West  Chester,  Pa 

9>253 

4,277 

Youngstown,  Ohio... 
Zanesville,  Ohio 

33,220 

15,435 

12,981 

8,028 

6,397 

7,046 

21,009 

18,113 

The  Wonderful  Growth  of  Chicago. 

The  population  of  Chicago  in  1830,  was  70;  1840,  4,853;  1845, 
12,088;  1850,  29,963;  1855,  60,227;  i860,  112,172;  1865,  178,900; 
1870,  298,977;  1872,  364,377;  1880,  503,185;  1884,  (estimated)  675,- 
000;  1885,  (estimated),  727,000;  1886,  (estimated)  750,000;  1887, 
(estimated)  760,000;  1889,  (estimated)  1,000,000;  1890,  1,099,133. 


THE  NAMES  OF  THE  STATES. 

Alabama — Indian;  meaning  “Here  we  rest.”  Arkansas  — 
“Kansas,”  the  Indian  name  for  “smoky  water,”  with  the  French 
prefix  “arc,”  bow  or  bend  in  the  principal  river.  California  — 
Caliefite  For7talla^  Spanish  for  “ hot  furnace,”  in  allusion  to  the 
climate.  Colorado  — Spanish;  meaning  “ colored,”  from  the  red 
color  of  the  Colorado  river.  Connecticut — Indian;  meaning 
“ long  river.”  Dela^vare — Named  in  honor  of  Lord  Delaware. 
Florida — Named  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  who  discovered  it  in  1512, 
on  Easter  Day,  the  Spanish  Pascua  de  Flores^  or  “Feast  of 
Flowers.”  Georgia — In  honor  of  George  II.  of  England.  ////- 
7iois — From  the  Indian  “illini,”  men,  and  the  French  suffix 
“ois,”  together  signifying  “ tribe  of  men.”  Indiaiia  — Indian 
land.  Iowa — Indian;  meaning  “beautiful  land.”  Kansas  — 
Indian;  meaning  “smoky  water.”  Kentucky — Indian  ; for  “ at 
the  head  of  the  river;  ” or  “ the  dark  and  bloody  ground.”  Louisi- 
ana— In  honor  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  Maine — From  the 
province  of  Maine,  in  France.  Maryland — In  honor  of  Henri- 
etta Maria,  queen  of  Charles  L of  England.  Massachusetts  — 
The  plate  of  the  great  hills  (the  blue  hills  southwest  of  Boston). 

133 


NEW  JERSEY  ranks  first  in  silk  goods,  zinc  and  fertilizing  marl, 
fourth  in  iron  ore,  fifth  in  iron  and  steel,  sixth  in  buckwheat,  man- 
ufactures and  soap,  seventh  in  rye,  nineteenth  in  population, 
P'irst  settlement,  by  Dutch,  at  Hergen,  1620.  One  of  the  thirteen 
original  States, 


134 


NEW  MEXICO  ranks  er^th  in  silver^  eleventh  in  gold,  nine- 
teenth in  sheep,  t\Vehty-second  in  cattle,  thirty-si^^th  in  miles  of 
railway,  and  43d  iii  population.  First  settlement,  by  Spaniards, 
at  Santa  Fe,  1537.  Organized  as  a territory,  1850.  Population  in 
1885,  territorial  census,  134,141. 


135 


NAMES  OF  THE  STATES, 


Michigan — The  Indian  name  for  a fish  weir.  The  lake  was  so 
called  from  the  fancied  resemblance  of  the  lake  to  a fish  trap. 
Minnesota — Indian;  meaning  “ skj-tinted  water.”  Mississippi 
— Indian;  meaning  “ great  father  of  waters.”  Missouri — Indian; 
meaning  “muddy.”  Nebraska — Indian;  meaning  “water  val- 
ley.” Nevada — Spanish;  meaning  “snow-covered,”  alluding  to 
the  mountains.  New  Hampshire — From  Hampshire  county, 
England.  New  Jersey — In  honor  of  Sir  George  Carteret,  one 
of  the  original  grantees,  who  had  previously  been  governor  of 
Jersey  Island.  New  Tork — In  honor  of  the  Duke  of  York. 
North  aiid  South  Carolina — Originally  called  Carolina,  in 
honor  of  Charles  IX.  of  France.  Ohio — Indian;  meaning 
“beautiful  river.”  Oregon — From  the  Spanish  “oregano,”  wild 
marjoram^  which  grows  abundantly  on  the  coast.  Pennsylvania 
— Latin:  meaning  Penn’s  woody  land.  Rhode  Island — From  a 
fancied  resemblance  to  the  island  of  Rhodes  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Tennessee — Indian,  meaning  “river  with  the  great  bend.” 
Texas  — Origin  of  this  name  is  unknown.  Vermont — French; 
meaning  green  mountain.  Virginia— In  honor  of  Elizabeth, 
the  “Virgin  Queen.”  Wisconsin — Indian;  meaning  “ gathering 
of  the  waters,”  or  “ wild  rushing  channel.” 

MOTTOES  OF  THE  STATES. 

Arkansas — Regnant  populi:  The  peoples  rule.  Calif  or- 
7tia — Eureka:  I have  found  it.  Colorado — Nil  sine  numine: 
Nothing  without  the  Divinity.  Co7inecticut — ^ui  tra7tstulit 
sustinet:  He  who  has  transferred,  sustains.  Delaware — Liberty 
and  Independence.  Florida — In  God  is  our  trust.  Georgia  — 
Wisdom,  Justice,  Moderation.  Illinois — State  Sovereignty  and 
National  Union.  Iowa — Our  liberties  we  prize,  and  our  rights 
we  will  maintain.  Ka7isas — Ad  astra  per  aspera:  To  the  stars 
through  rugged  ways.  Kentucky — United  we  stand,  divided  we 
fall.  Louisiana — Union  and  Confidence.  Maine — Dirigo:  I 
direct.  Maryland  — Crescite  et  7nultiplicamini : Increase  and 
multiply.  Massachusetts — Ense  petit  placida7n  sub  libertate 
quiete77i:  By  her  sword  she  seeks  under  liberty  a calm  repose. 
Michigan — Si  quceris  peninsulam  a7noenam  circu7hspice:  If 
thou  seekest  a beautiful  peninsula,  look  around.  Minnesota  — 
HEtoile  du  Nord:  The  Star  of  the  North.  Missouri — Solus 
populi  supre7na  lex  esto:  Let  the  welfare  of  the  people  be  the 
supreme  law.  Nebraska  — Popular  Sovereignty.  Nevada  — 
Volens  et  potens:  Willing  and  able.  New  Jersey  — Liberty  and 
Independence,  New  Tork — Excelsior : Higher.  Ohio — Im- 
perium  in  imperio:  An  empire  within  an  empire.  Oregon  — 
Alis  volat  propriis:  She  flies  with  her  own  wings.  Petinsylva- 
nia — Virtue,  Liberty,  Independence.  Rhode  Island — Hope. 

136 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NICKNAMES. 


South  Carolina — Animis  opibiisque  parati:  Ready  with  our 
lives  and  property.  Te^inessee — Agriculture,  Commerce.  Ver- 
ftiont — Freedom  and  Unity.  Virginia — Sic  semper  tyrannis: 
So  be  it  ever  to  tyrants.  West  Virgiiiia — Montani  semper 
liberi:  The  mountaineers  are  always  free.  Wisconsin — For- 
ward. United  States — E pluribus  unum:  From  many,  one. 
Annuit  coeptis:  God  has  favored  the  undertaking;  Novus  ordo 
seclorum:  A new  order  of  ages.  The  first  named  on  one  side  of 
the  great  seal,  the  other  two  on  the  reverse. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  NICKNAMES. 

STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. 

Alabama,  Cotton  State;  Arkansas,  Toothpick  and  Bear  State; 
California,  Eureka  and  Golden  State;  Colorado,  Centennial  State; 
Connecticut,  Land  of  Steady  Habits,  Freestone  State  and  Nut- 
meg State;  Dakota,  Sioux  State;  Delaware,  Uncle  Sam’s  Pocket 
Handkerchief  and  Blue  Hen  State;  Florida,  Everglade  and 
Flowery  State;  Georgia,  Empire  State  of  the  South;  Idaho,  Gem 
of  the  Mountains;  Illinois,  Prairie  and  Sucker  State;  Indiana, 
Hoosier  State;  Iowa,  Hawkeye  State;  Kansas,  Jayhawker  State; 
Kentucky,  Corn-cracker  State;  Louisiana,  Creole  State;  Maine, 
Timber  and  Pine  Tree  State;  Maryland,  Monumental  State; 
Massachusetts,  Old  Bay  State;  Michigan,  Wolverine  and  Benin* 
sular  State;  Minnesota,  Gopher  and  North  Star  State;  Mississippi, 
Eagle  State;  Missouri,  Puke  State;  Nebraska,  Antelope  State; 
Nevada,  Sage  State;  New  Hampshire,  Old  Granite  State;  New 
Jersey,  Blue  State  and  New  Spain;  New  Mexico,  Vermin  State; 
New  York,  Empire  State;  North  Carolina,  Rip  Van  Winkle, 
Old  North  and  Turpentine  State;  Ohio,  Buckeye  State;  Oregon, 
Pacific  State;  Pennsylvania,  Keystone,  Iron  and  Oil  State; 
Rhode  Island,  Plantation  State  and  Little  Rhody;  South  Caro- 
lina, Palmetto  State;  Tennessee,  Lion’s  Den  State;  Texas,  Lone 
Star  State;  Utah,  Mormon  State;  Vermont,  Green  Mountain 
State;  Virginia,  Old  Dominion;  Wisconsin,  Badger  and  Copper 
State. 

NATIVES  OF  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. 

Alabama,  lizards;  Arkansas,  toothpicks;  California,  gold-hun- 
ters; Colorado,  rovers;  Connecticut,  wooden  nutmegs;  Dakota, 
squatters;  Delaware,  muskrats;  Florida,  fly-up-the-creeks; 
Georgia,  buzzards;  Idaho,  fortune  seekers;  Illinois,  suckers; 
Indiana,  hoosiers;  Iowa,  hawkeyes;  Kansas,  jayhawkers;  Ken- 
tucky, corn-crackers;  Louisiana,  creoles;  Maine,  foxes;  Mary- 
land, clam-humpers',  Massachusetts,  Yankees;  Michigan,  wol- 
verines; Minnesota,  gophers;  Mississippi,  tadpoles;  Missouri, 
pukes;  Nebraska,  bugeatefs;  Nevada,  sage-hens;  New  Hampshire, 
granite  boys;  New  Jersey,  blues,  or  clam-catchers;  New  Mexico, 

137 


NEW  YORK  ranks  first  in  manufactures,  population,  printing 
and  publishing,  hops,  hay,  potatoes,  buckwheat  and  milch  cows; 
second  in  salt,  silk  goods,  malt  and  distilled  liquors,  miles  of  rail- 
way and  barley;  third  in  agricultural  implements,  iron  ore,  iron 
and  steel,  oats  and  rye,  fourth  in  wool.  First  settlement,  by  the 
Dutch,  at  New  Amsterdam  (now  New  York  City),  1614.  One  of 
the  original  States. 


NORTH  CAROLINA  ranks  first  in  tar  and  turpentine,  second  in 
copper,  third  in  peanuts  and  tobacco,  fourth  in  rice,  ninth  in  cot- 
ton, fifteenth  in  population.  First  settlers,  English,  Cowan 
River,  1650.  SOUTH  CAROLINA  ranks  first  in  rice  and  phos- 
phates, fifth  in  cotton,  and  21st  in  population.  First  settlers, 
English,  Ashley  River,  1670.  North  and  South  Carolina  are  both 
original  States. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NICKJVAMES, 


Spanish  Indians;  New  York,  Knickerbockers;  North  Carolina, 
tarheels;  Ohio,  buckeyes;  Oregon,  hard  cases;  Pennsylvania, 
pennamites,  or  leather-heads;  Rhode  Island,  gunflints;  South 
Carolina,  weazles;  Tennessee,  whelps;  Texas,  beef-heads;  Utah, 
polygamists;  Vermont,  green-mountain  boys;  Virginia,  beagles; 
Wisconsin,  badgers. 

NICKNAMES  OF  CITIES. 

Atlanta,  Gate  City  of  the  South;  Baltimore,  Monumental 
City;  Bangor,  Lumber  City;  Boston,  Modern  Athens,  Literary 
Emporium,  City  of  Notions,  and  Hub  of  the  Universe;  Brook- 
lyn, City  of  Churches;  Buffalo,  Queen  of  the  Lakes;  Burling- 
ton (Iowa),  Orchard  City;  Charleston,  Palmetto  City ; Chicago, 
Prairie,  or  Garden  City;  Cincinnati,  Queen  of  the  West  and 
Porkopolis;  Cleveland,  Forest  City ; Denver,  City  of  the  Plains; 
Detroit,  City  of  the  Straits;  Hartford,  Insurance  City;  Indian- 
apolis, Railroad  City;  Keokuk,  Gate  City;  Lafayette,  Star  City; 
Leavenworth,  Cottonwood  City ; Louisville,  Falls  City;  Lowell, 
Spindle  City;  McGregor,  Pocket  City;  Madison,  Lake  City; 
Milwaukee,  Cream  City;  Nashville,  Rock  City;  New  Haven, 
Elm  City;  New  Orleans,  Crescent  City;  New  York,  Empire 
City,  Commercial  Emporium,  Gotham,  and  Metropolis  of 
America;  Philadelphia,  City  of  Brotherly  Love,  City  of  Penn, 
(^aker  City,  and  Centennial  City;  Pittsburgh,  Iron  City  and 
Smoky  City;  Portland  (Me.),  Hill  City;  Providence,  Roger 
Williams’s  City,  and  Perry  Davis’s  Pain  Killer;  Raleigh,  Oak 
City;  Richmond  (Va.),  Cockade  City;  Richmond  (Ind.), 
Quaker  City  of  the  West;  Rochester,  Aqueduct  City;  Salt 
Lake  City,  Mormon  City;  San  Francisco,  Golden  Gate;  Sa- 
vannah, Forest  City  of  the  South;  Sheboyan,  Evergreen  City; 
St.  Louis,  Mound  City;  St.  Paul,  North  Star  Citj^;  Vicksburg, 
Key  City;  Washington,  City  of  Magnificent  Distances,  and 
Federal  City. 


The  English  Sparrow. 

The  first  English  sparrow  was  brought  to  the  United  States 
in  1850,  but  it  was  not  until  1870  that  the  species  can  be  said  to 
have  firmly  established  itself.  Since  then  it  has  taken  posses- 
sion of  the  country.  Its  fecundity  is  amazing.  In  the  latitude 
of  New  York  and"  southward  it  hatches,  as  a rule,  five  or  six 
broods  in  a season,  with  from  four  to  six  young  in  a brood.  As- 
suming the  average  annual  product  of  a pair  to  be  twenty-tour 
young,  of  which  half  are  females  and  half  males,  and  assuming 
further,  for  the  sake  of  computation,  that  all  live,  together  with 
their  offspring,  it  will  be  seen  that  in  ten  years  the  progeny  of  a 
single  pair  would  be  275,716,983,698. 

140 


U.  S.  STATISTICS  IN  A NUTSHELL. 


r I aHE  last  census  of  the  United  States,  taken  in  1890,  and  the 
I results  of  which  were  announced  in  1891,  shows  that  we  have' 
a POPULATION  of  62,622,250.  The  census  of  1880  counted 
50,155,783,  of  whom  1 7,392,099  were  earners. 

The  combined  wealth  of  the  country  in  1880  amounted  to 
over  $50,000,000,000  — about  $880  per  liead,  or  $2,600  per  worker. 
Half  of  this  was  in  lands  and  houses.  This  half  was  made  up  of 
farms,  $10,197,000,000  ; residence  and  business  real-estate,  $9,881,- 
000,000  ; public  buildings,  churches,  etc.,  not  taxed,  $2,000,000,- 

000.  One-eighth  was  railroads  ( $5,536,000,000);  another  eighth, 
household  furniture  and  supplies  ($5,000,000,000);  the  other 
quarter,  live  stock  and  farm  tools  ($2,406,000,000);  mines  and 
quarries  ($781,000,000);  telegraphs,  ships  and  canals  ($419,000,- 
000);  specie  ($612,000,000);  miscellaneous  ($650,000,000);  and 
the  stock  of  products  and  imports  ( $6,160,000,000). 

The  annual  product  or  earnings  of  the  nation  ape  given  by 
the  census  of  1880  as  $8,500,000,000.  One-tenth  of  this  is  used  on 
farms.  The  product  is  very  unevenly  divided.  An  even  divi- 
sion would  give  about  $450  per  year  to  each  earner,  or  less  than 
45  cents  per  day  for  each  person.  But  it  has  been  reckoned  that 
in  1880  fifty  persons  had  an  average  income  of  $1,000,000  each 
per  year  ; 2,000,  $100,000;  100,000,  $10,000;  a million,  $1,000; 
14,000,000  under  $400  per  year. 

The  chief  wastes  are  as  follows  : 


1.  Drink.  The  “liquor  bill”  of  this  country,  at  the  price  paid 
dram-shops,  is  estimated  at  from  $474,000,000  up,  of  which  a large 
part  is  worse  than  waste. 

2.  Fire.  The  loss  by  fire  each  year  now  exceeds  $100,000,000, 
of  which  the  $50,000,000  paid  back  by  insurance  companies  is 
none  the  less  loss.  The  expenses  of  insurance  companies  are 
$35,000,000  in  addition,  and  for  fire  departments,  $25,000,000 
more. 

3.  Crime  and  pauperism.  The  census  reported  59,255  crimi- 
nals in  jail,  and  67,067  paupers  in  poor-houses.  These  are  by  no 
means  all.  Their  support  costs  over  $12,500,000  per  year,  but 
the  full  loss  by  crime  runs  probably  toward  fifty  millions. 

4.  Waste  of  food.  We  consume  now  about  $500,000,000  worth 
of  food,  of  which  probably  10  per  cent  is  wasted  by  extrava- 
gance, bad  cooking,  etc.,  or  $50,000,000. 

5.  Strikes  and  lack  of  employment.  There  were  in  one  year 
( 1880)  762  strikes  recorded,  of  which  226  are  known  to  have  re- 
sulted in  a loss  of  $3,700,000  unearned  wages.  Still  greater  is 
the  loss  by  lack  of  employment  for  men  willing  to  work. 

141 


OHIO  ranks  first  in  agricultural  implements  and  wool,  second  in 
petroleum,  iron  and  steel,  fourth  in  population,  wheat,  sheep,  coal, 
malt  and  distilled  liquors;  fourth  in  printing  and  publishing,  salt 
and  miles  of  railway;  fifth  in  milch  cows,  hogs,  horses,  hay,  tobac- 
co, iron  ore  and  manufactures.  First  settled,  by  English,  at  Mari- 
etta, 1788.  Admitted  into  the  Union,  1803. 


142 


OREGON  ranks  seventh  among  the  States  and  Territories  in 
fisheries,  fifteenth  in  wheat,  thirty-eighth  in  population.  First 
settlement,  by  Americans,  in  i8ii.  Organized  as  a territory  in 
1848,  and  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1859. 


J43 


FACTS  ABOUT  OUR  COUNTRY. 

The  following  gives  the  area  of  our  country,  and  when  and  how 
the  territory  was  acquired  : . 

Square  Miles. 

Territory  ceded  by  England  in  1783 815,615 

Louisiana  acquired  from  France  in  1803 930,928 

Florida  acquired  from  Spain  in  1821 59,268 

Texas  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1845  237,504 

Oregon,  by  treaty  in  1846 280,425 

California  taken  from  Mexico  in  1845 649,762 

Arizona,  from  Mexico  by  treaty  in  1854 27,500 

Alaska,  from  Russia  by  treaty  in  1867 577,390 

Total  square  miles 3,578,392 


INCREASE  OF  POPULATION  IN  UNITED  STATES. 


1831-40 

Natural. 

28.02 

Immigration. 

4.65 

Total 
per  Cent. 

32.67 

1841-50 

26.19 

9.68 

35.87 

1851-60  

24.20 

11.38 

35.58 

1861-70 

15.38 

7.25 

22.63 

1871-80 

22.78 

7.29 

30.07 

The  increase  of  population  since  1730  has  averaged  32  per  cent, 
every  10  years.  At  this  rate  there  would  he  eighty-eight  millions  in 
1900.  From  1880  to  1890  the  increase  was  24.86  per  cent. 

The  increase  of  population  in  Europe  since  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury is  as  follows,  according  to  Mulhall  (thousands  omitted): 


1380. 

1480. 

1580. 

1680. 

1780. 

1880. 

British  Isles  . . 

2,360 

3,700 

4,600 

5,532 

9,561 

35,004 

France 

11,240 

12,600 

14,300 

18,800 

25,100 

37,400 

Germany 

600 

800 

1,000 

1,400 

5,460 

45,260 

Russia 

1,200 

2,100 

4 300 

12,600 

26,800 

84,440 

Austria 

2,300 

9,500 

16,500 

14,000 

20,200 

37,830 

Italy 

Spain 

8,400 

9,200 

10,400 

11,500 

12,800 

28,910 

7,500 

8,800 

8,150 

9,200 

9,960 

16,290 

Total 

33,600 

46,700 

59,250 

73,032 

109,881 

285,134 

GOVERNMENT  SALARIES. 

The  salary  of  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  $50,000  a 
year,  the  Vice  President,  $8,000;  Cabinet  officers,  $8,000.  Sena- 
tors, $5,000  and  mileage ; Congressmen,  $5,000  and  mileage. 
Chief  Justice  Supreme  Court,  $10,500  ; associate  Justices,  $10,- 
000.  The  diplomats  get  good  pay  : Ministers  to  Germany, 

144 


U,  S.  STATISTICS  IN  A NUTSHELL, 


Great  Britain,  France  and  Russia,  $17,500  ; Ministers  to  Brazil, 
China,  Austria-Hungary,  Italy,  Mexico,  Japan  and  Spain,  $12,- 
000;  Ministers  to  Chili,  Peru  and  Central  America,  $10,000;  Minis- 
ters to  Argentine  Confederation,  Hawaiian  Islands,  Belgium, 
Hayti,  Colombia,  Netherlands,  Sweden,  Turkey  and  Venezuela, 
$7,500  ; Ministers  to  Switzerland,  Denmark,  Paraguaj^  Bolivia 
and  Portugal,  $5,000  ; Ministers  to  Liberia,  $4,000.  The  heads 
of  the  Government  departments  receive  : Superintendent  of 
Bureau  of  Engraving  and  Printing,  $4,500  ; Public  Printer,  $4,- 
500  ; Superintendent  of  Census,  $5,000  ; Superintendent  of  Naval 
Observatory,  $5,000  ; Superintendent  of  the  Signal  Service,  $4,- 
000  ; Director  of  Geological  Surveys,  $6,000 ; Director  of  the 
Mint,  $4,500 ; Commissioner  of  General  Land  Office,  $4,000 ; 
Commissioner  of  Pensions,  $3,600  ; Commissioner  of  Agricul- 
ture,$3,000  ; Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs,  $3,000  ; Commis- 
sioner of  Education,  $3,000  ; Commander  of  Marine  Corps,  $3,- 
500  ; Superintendent  of  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  $6,000. 

The  pay  of  army  officers  is  fixed  as  follows  : General,  $13,- 
500;  Lieut. -General,  $11,000;  Major-General,  $7,500;  Brigadier- 
General,  $5,500 ; Colonel,  $3,500,  Lieutenant-Colonel,  $3,000  ; 
Major,  $2,500  ; Captain,  mounted,  $2,000  ; Captain,  not  mounted, 
$1,800  ; Regimental  Adjutant,  $1,800 ; Regimental  Quartermas- 
ter, $1,800  ; ist  Lieutenant,  mounted,  $1,600;  ist  Lieutenant,  not 
mounted,  $1,500;  2d  Lieutenant,  mounted,  $1,500  ; 2d  Lieutenant, 
not  mounted,  $1,400  ; Chaplain,  $1,500.  The  navy  salaries  are  : 
Admiral,  $13,000  ; Vice-Admiral,  $9,000  ; Rear-Admiral,  $6,000  ; 
Commodore,  $5,000 ; Captain,  $4,500 ; Commander,  $3,500  ; 
Ifieut-Commander,  $2,800;  Lieutenant,  $2,400  ; Master,  $1,800  ; 
Ensign,  $1,200  ; Midshipman,  $1,000  ; Cadet  Midshipman,  $500  ; 
Mate,  $900  ; Medical  and  Pay  Director  and  Medical  and  Pay 
Inspector  and  Chief  Engineer,  $4,400  ; Fleet  Surgeon,  Fleet  Pay- 
master and  Fleet  Engineer,  $4,400  ; Surgeon  and  Paymaster,  $2,- 
800 ; Chaplain,  $2,500. 


STATE  AND  TERRITORIAL  CAPITALS. 

Alabama,  Montgomery;  Arizona,  Prescott;  Arkansas,  Little 
Rock;  California,  Sacramento;  Colorado,  Denver;  Connecti- 
cut, Hartford;  North  Dakota,  Bismarck;  South  Dakota,  Pierre; 
Delaware,  Dover;  Florida,  Tallahassee;  Georgia,  Atlanta;  Ida- 
ho, Boise  City;  Illinois,  Springfield;  Indiana,  Indianapolis;  In- 
dian Territory,  Tahlequah;  Iowa,  Des  Moines;  Kansas,  To- 
peka; Kentucky,  Frankfort;  Louisiana,  Baton  Rouge;  Maine, 
Augusta;  Maryland,  Annapolis;  Massachusetts,  Boston;  Michi- 
gan, Lansing;  Minnesota,  St.  Paul;  Mississippi,  Jackson; 
Missouri,  Jefferson  City;  Montana,  Helena;  Nebraska,  Lin- 
coln; Nevada,  Carson  City;  New  Hampshire,  Concord; 

145 


PENNSYLVANIA  ranks  first  in  rye,  iron  and  steel,  petroleum, 
coal;  second  in  population,  manufactures,  buckwheat,  potatoes, 
printing  and  publishing;  third  in  milch  cows,  hay  and  miles  of  rail- 
way; fourth  in  oats  and  tobacco;  fifth  in  silk  goods,  wool,  malt  and 
distilled  liquors;  sixth  in  salt, copper  and  agricultural  implements; 
eighth  in  horses  and  sheep.  First  settlement,  English,  Philadel- 
phia, 1682.  One  of  the  thirteen  original  States. 


14G 


RHODE  ISLAND  ranks  second  among  the  States  of  the  Union 
in  cotton,  flax  and  linen  goods,  thirty-third  in  population.  The 
first  settlement  was  by  the  English  at  Providence  in  1636.  One  of 
the  thirteen  original  States. 


147 


U.  S,  STATISTICS  IN  A NUTSHELL. 

New  Jersey,  Trenton  ; .New  Mexico  Territory,  Santa  Fe  ; New 
York,  Albany;  North  Carolina,  Raleigh;  Ohio,  Columbus; 
Oregon,  Salem  ; Pennsylvania,  Harrisburg ; Rhode  Island,  New- 
port and  Providence ; South  Carolina,  Columbia  ; Tennessee, 
Nashville;  Texas,  Austin;  Utah  Territory,  Salt  Lake  City; 
Vermont,  Montpelier  ; Virgina,  Richmond  ; Washington,  Olym- 
pia ; West  Virginia,  Wheeling  ; Wisconsin,  Madison;  Wyom- 
ing Territory,  Cheyenne. 

Portraits  on  Bank  Notes  and  Postage  Stamps. 

On  United  States  notes — $i,  Washington;  $2,  Jefferson;  $5, 
Jackson;  $10,  Webster;  $20,  Hamilton;  $50,  Franklin;  $100, 
Lincoln;  $500,  General  Mansfield;  $1,000,  DeWitt  Clinton; 
$5,000,  Madison;  $10,000,  Jackson.  On  silver  certificates — $10, 
Robert  Morris;  $20,  Commodore  Decatur;  $50,  Edward  Everett; 
$100,  James  Monroe;  $500,  Charles  Sumner,  and  $1,000,  W.  L. 
Marcy.  On  gold  notes — $20,  Garfield;  $50,  Silas  Wright;  $100, 
Thomas  H.  Benton;  $500,  A.  Lincoln;  $1,000,  Alexander  Hamil- 
ton; $5,000,  James  Madison;  $10,000,  Andrew  Jackson. 

Those  which  appear  on  postage  stamps  are:  On  lo-cent 
stamp,  the  head  of  Jefferson,  from  life-size  statue  by  Powers; 
6-cent,  Lincoln,  from  bust  by  Volk;  5- cent,  Garfield;  4-cent, 
Jackson;  2 -cent,  Washington,  after  Houdin’s  bust;  i-cent, 
Franklin,  from  profile  bust  by  Rubicht.  Postal  card,  Jefferson. 

Symbolic  Meaning  of  Colors. — White  was  the  emblem 
of  light,  religious  purity,  innocence,  faith,  joy  and  life.  In  the 
judge,  it  indicates  integrity;  in  the  sick,  humility;  in  the  woman, 
chastity. 

Red,  the  ruby,  signifies  fire,  divine  love,  heat  of  the  creative 
power,  and  royalty.  White  and  red  roses  express  love  and  wis- 
dom. The  red  color  of  the  blood  has  its  origin  in  the  action  of 
the  heart,  which  corresponds  to,  or  symbolizes,  love.  In  a bad 
sense  red  corresponds  to  the  infernal  love  of  evil,  hatred,  etc. 

Blue,  or  the  sapphire,  expresses  heaven,  the  firmament,  truth 
from  a celestial  origin,  constancy  and  fidelity. 

Yellow,  or  gold,  is  the  symbol  of  the  sun,  of  the  goodness  of 
God,  of  marriage  and  faithfulness.  In  a bad  sense  yellow  signi- 
fies inconstancy,  jealousy  and  deceit. 

Green,  the  emerald,  is  the  color  of  the  spring  of  hope,  particu- 
larly of  the  hope  of  immortality  and  of  victory,  as  the  color  of 
the  laurel  and  palm. 

Violet,  the  amethyst,  signifies  love  and  truth,  or  passion  and 
suffering.  Purple  and  scarlet  signify  things  good  and  true  from 
a celestial  origin. 

Black  corresponds  to  despair,  darkness,  earthliness,  mourning, 
negation,  wickedness  and  death. 

148 


U.  S.  POLITICAL  HISTORY  IN  BRIEF. 


That  enthusiastic  little  rebel,  Rhode  Island,  was  the  first 
of  the  colonies  to  declare  itself  “ free  from  all  dependence 
on  the  crown  of  Great  Britain.”  This  she  did  on  May 
4,  1776.  The  Assembly  of  Virginia  in  the  same  month  in- 
structed her  delegates  to  the  Continental  Congress  to  present  to 
that  body  a proposition  “ affirming  the  independence  of  the  colo- 
nies from  Great  Britain.”  In  compliance  with  these  instructions 
Richard  Henry  Lee,  of  Virginia,  on  June  7,  1776,  introduced  his 
famous  resolutions:  “That  these  united  colonies  are,  and  of  right 
ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  States;  that  they  are  absolved 
from  all  allegiance  to  the  British  crown;  and  that  all  political 
connection  between  them  and  the  state  of  Great  Britain  is,  and 
ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved.  That  it  is  expedient  forthwith  to 
take  the  most  effectual  measures  for  forming  foreign  alliances. 
That  a plan  of  confederation  be  prepared  and  transmitted  to  the 
respective  colonies  for  their  consideration  and  approbation.” 
John  Adams  seconded  these  resolutions,  and  an  animated  discus- 
sion ensued.  On  June  8,  a committee  consisting  of  Thomas  Jef- 
ferson, John  Adams,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Roger  Sherman,  and 
Robert  R.  Livingston,  was  appointed  to  draw  up  a declaration 
of  independence  embodying  the  sense  of  Lee’s  resolutions.  On 
July  2,  Lee’s  resolutions  were  passed  by  the  vote  of  twelve  of  the 
thirteen  colonies,  the  New  York  delegates  refraining  from  voting 
for  want  of  instructions  from  their  province.  On  July  3,  the 
formal  declaration,  almost  precisely  as  written  by  Thomas  Jef- 
ferson, was  presented  by  the  committee  above  named,  and  was 
debated  with  great  spirit,  John  Adams  being  the  chief  speaker 
on  the  part  of  the  committee.  The  discussion  was  resumed  on 
the  morning  of  the  4th,  and  at  2 o’clock  in  the  afternoon,  after 
one  or  two  slight  modifications,  it  was  adopted.  The  announce- 
ment was  hailed  with  the  liveliest  enthusiasm.  “Ring!  ring!” 
shouted  the  lad  stationed  below  to  give  the  signal  to  the  old  bell- 
nan  in  the  State  House  tower;  and  he  did  ring  until  the  whole 
city  shouted  for  joy.  The  King’s  arms  were  wrenched  from  the 
Court  House  and  burned  in  the  streets;  bonfires  were  lighted, 
the  city  illuminated,  and  the  exultation  was  prolonged  far  into 
the  night.  In  New  Y ork  City  the  populace  hurled  the  leaden 
statute  of  George  III.  from  its  pedestal  and  molded  it  into  bul- 
lets, and  in  all  the  great  cities  similar  demonstrations  of  enthu- 
siasm were  exhibited. 

The  Declaration  of  Independence  was  signed  August  2, 
1776,  when  President  John  Hancock  said,  “ There  must  be  no 
pulling  different  ways,  we  must  all  hang  together,”  to  which 
Franklin  replied,  “Yes,  we  must  all  hang  together,  or  we  shall 
all  hang  separately.” 


149 


TEXAS  ranks  first  in  cattle  and  cotton,  second  in  sugar,  sheep, 
rtules  and  horses,  sixth  in  miles  of  railway,  seventh  in  milch  cows, 
eighth  in  hogs  and  rice,  seventh  in  population.  First  settle- 
ment, by  Spaniards,  at  San  Antonio,  in  1692.  Admitted  into  the 
Union  in  1845. 


15a 


r 


UTAH  ranks  third  among  the  States  and  Territories  in  silver, 
tenth  in  gold,  fifteenth  in  coal,  thirty-fourth  in  miles  of  railway, 
thirty-ninth  in  population.  First  settlement,  by  Americans, 
at  Salt  I^ake  City  1847.  Organi/-ed  as  a Territory  in  1850. 


151 


V.  S.  POLITICAL  HIS  TORT  IN  BRIEF. 

State  constitutions  were  adopted  in  the  same  year  as  follows: 
.By  New  Jersey  (July  2),  Virginia  (July  5),  Pennsylvania  (July 
15),  Maryland  (Aug.  14),  Delaware  (Sept.  20),  North  Carolina 
(Dec.  18). 

1778 —  Independence  of  United  States  acknowledged  by 
France  by  a treaty  of  alliance  and  commerce. 

1779 —  Naval  victory  of  John  Paul  Jones. 

1781 —  A French  fleet  in  aid  of  the  United  States  drives  the 
British  from  Chesapeake  Bay.  Surrender  of  Cornwallis. 

1782 —  Independence  recognized  by  Holland. 

1783 —  Independence  acknowledged  by  Sweden,  Denmark, 
Spain  and  Russia,  successively.  Definite  treaty  of  peace  with 
Great  Britain,  Sept.  3. 

1789 — Formation  and  adoption  of  the  Constitution. 

American  politics  begins  properly  with  the  close  of  the  Revolu 
tionary  war,  out  of  which  travail  this  nation  was  born.  When 
the  British  departed  they  left  behind  them  thirteen  separate  and 
independent  States  joined  together  in  a feeble  confederation  and 
governed  as  a whole,  so  far  as  they  would  consent  to  be  governed 
at  all,  by  the  inadequate  Continental  Congress.  The  finances 
were  in  a deplorable  condition;  the  States  were  jealous  of  each 
other,  and  of  the  Congress.  As  everything  was  badly  defined 
and  unsettled  there  were  constant  encroachments  and  abuses, 
and  it  seemed  that  after  achieving  freedom  America  was  about 
to  cast  it  aw’ay.  During  the  war  there  had  been  two  parties,  the 
Tories,  who  were  'English  in  sympathy,  and  the  Whigs,  who 
were  American  to  the  core.  These  gave  place  to  two  new  di- 
visions, one  of  which  favored  a closer  and  lasting  union  in  which 
the  States  should  bind  themselves  together  into  a compact  gov- 
ernment— called  the  Federalists;  and  one  which,  while  gener- 
ally admitting  the  need  for  a closer  and  more  binding  union,  still 
sought  to  preserve  the  sovereignty  and  independence  of  the 
States — these  were  known  as  the  Anti-Federalists.  Our  Consti- 
tution and  our  form  of  government  are  the  result  of  the  two  op- 
posing forces,  and  its  great  flexibilitj^ — its  perfection — is  to  be 
ascribed  to  the  wisdom  with  which  the  fathers  sought  out  and 
chose  what  was  best  in  the  scheme  of  either. 

It  is  impossible  here  to  do  more  than  outline  the  growth  of 
parties,  but  no  man  can  be  an  intelligent  voter  who  does  not 
study  the  foundation  of  the  republic.  Every  citizen  should  pur- 
sue this  subject  further  in  the  pages  of  the  Federalist^  which 
argued  one  side  of  the  issue,  and  in  the  writings  of  Thomas  Jef-. 
ferson,  who  upheld  the  other.  It  will  show  how  high  ran  feeling 
at  the  time,  when  it  is  pointed  out  that,  although  the  Constitu- 
tion was  adopted  in  1787,  it  was  ratified  by  but  eleven  States  in 
1788.  Still  this  was  enough  to  set  the  new  nation  up  in  business. 

152 


U.  S.  POLITICAL  HIS  TORT  IN  BRIEF 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON  (1789-1797)  was  the  unanimous 
choice  of  the  electoral  college,  and  the  hero  of  the  revolution  be- 
came the  first  President  of  the  United  States  in  1789.  It  is  not 
to  be  imagined  that  even  at  that  time  the  people  were  all  of  one 
mind  about  the  Constitution.  There  is  no  document — not  even 
the  Bible — which  is  not  subject  to  different  interpretations,  and 
the  great  charter  of  our  American  liberties  was  no  exception  to 
the  rule.  Parties  were  formed  known  as  strict  constructionists 
and  loose  constructionists,  the  former  Federalists,  the  latter  Anti- 
Federalists,  the  first  believing  in  a strongly  centralized  govern- 
ment, the  second  jealously  observant  of  the  rights  of  the  States. 
It  will  be  found  that  a close  analysis  of  the  distinction  made 
there  has  been  and  is  the  dividing  line  of  American  parties  ever 
since. 

Of  course  new  issues  complicated  the  old  ones.  The  Anti-Fed- 
eralists changed  their  name  to  the  Democratic -Republican 
party,  and  warmly  urged  the  alliance  with  France.  In  the  rev- 
olution which  had  just  ended,  the  French  alone  had  first  come  to 
our  aid,  and  on  land  and  sea  had  waged  war  upon  our  common 
enemy.  Hence  there  was  a lively  sense  of  gratitude  to  that  great 
nation  throughout  the  country,  made  none  the  less  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  republic,  and  hardly  destroyed  by  the  atrocities 
of  the  Reign  of  Terror.  The  Federalists,  on  the  other  hand,  in- 
clined toward  England  as  the  national  friend,  through  the  ties 
of  kinship  and  common  language.  In  spite  of  these  differences 
of  opinion,  which  were  daily  growing  more  bitter,  there  was 
practically  no  partisanship  during  Washington’s  administration. 
He  called  Federalists  and  Anti-Federalists  into  his  cabinet,  which 
was  composed  of  men  of  such  opposite  views  as  Alexander 
Hamilton  and  Thomas  Jefferson,  and  his  farewell  address,  which 
every  school  boy  has  read,  is  full  of  grave  warning  against  the  evils 
and  dangers  of  party  spirit. 

But  with  Washington  in  retirement,  the  contest  began.  The 
■^Federalists  put  JOHN  ADAMS  (1797-1801)  in  the  field,  and 
elected  him  in  spite  of  the  English  treaty  which  John  Jay  had 
made  and  which  Adams  had  supported.  Thomas  Jefferson  be- 
came vice-president,  because  at  that  time  the  vice-presidency 
went  to  the  man  receiving  the  next  largest  vote  for  president,  a 
system  which  was  in  force  until  1804. 

There  were  many  reasons  why  the  Federalist  triumph  could 
not  be  a permanent  one.  England  was  intensely  unpopular,  and 
the  administration  was  accused  of  favoring  that  kingdom  unduly. 
The  alien  and  sedition  laws  caused  an  access  of  the  public  dis- 
pleasure, and  the  party  split  into  two  sections,  one  following  Ad- 
ams, the  other  Hamilton.  Nominations  for  the  election  were 
made  by  members  of  Congress;  Adams  and  Pinkney  were  chosen 

153 


VIRGINIA  ranks  first  in  peanuts,  second  in  tobacco,  eighth  in 
salt  and  iron  ore,  fourteenth  in  population.  First  settlers,  Eng- 
lish, at  Jamestown,  1607.  One  of  the  original  States.  WEST 
VIRGINIA  ranks  fifth  in  salt  and  coal,  eighth  in  buckwheat,  iron 
and  steel,  twenty-eightlj  in  population.  First  settlers,  English, 
at  Wheeling,  1774.  Admitted  into  the  Union  in  1863. 


154 


WASHINGTON,  in  1890,  ranked  eighth  among  the  States  and 
Territories  in  gold,  forty-sixth  in  miles  of  railway,  and  34th 
in  population.  First  settlement,  by  Americans,  at  Astoria,  in  1811. 
Organized  as  a territory  in  1853,  and  admitted  into  the  Union  in 
1889. 


155 


U.  S.  POLITICAL  HISTORT  IN  BRIEF, 


as  the  Federal  standard-bearers,  Jefferson  and  Aaron  Burr  as  the 
Republican.  Jefferson  and  Burr  were  elected,  but  as  both  had 
received  the  same  number  of  votes,  the  election  was  thrown  into 
the  House,  which  chose  THOMAS  JEFFERSON  (1801-1809) 
the  third  president  of  the  United  States. 

The  history  of  his  administration  was  a quiet  one.  He  refused 
to  make  the  civil  service  the  spoil  of  victory,  and  gave  proof  of 
the  flexibility  of  his  ideas  of  government  by  the  purchase  of 
Louisiana  Territory  from  France  in  1803,  which  was  a measure 
tending  strongly  toward  Federalism — giving  a hostage, 
as  it  were,  to  the  central  government  on  the  part  of  the 
States.  Jefferson  also  agreed  to  the  building  of  the  great 
post  road  to  the  Ohio,  which  was  by  no  means  a Republican 
scheme. 

JAMES  MADISON  (1809-1817)  was  elected  fourth  presi- 
dent. He,  like  Jefferson,  was  a Republican,  although,  as  has  been 
pointed  out,  that  party  is  more  nearly  akin  to  what  is  to-day 
called  Democracy.  C.  C.  Pinkney,  the  Federalist  candidate  who 
opposed  him,  and  who  had  run  twice  against  Jefferson,  received 
47  electoral  votes,  while  Madison  was  given  122.  The  Feder- 
alists lost  every  part  of  the  country  save  New  England,  and  one 
result  of  this  election  was  to  give  that  sectional  tone  to  our  poli- 
tics which  has  to  a greater  or  less  extent  endured  to  the  present 
time. 

The  country  was  drifting  into  a war  with  England  at  the  time, 
and  the  public  spirit  Was  aroused  by  the  continual  outrages  per- 
petrated upon  our  sailors  on  the  high  seas  by  British  ships.  The 
Republicans  were  recognized  as  the  fighting  party,  and  under 
the  leadership  of  Calhoun,  Clay  and  Crawford,  the  War  of  1812 
was  begun.  The  Federalists  protested,  and  in  Massachusetts 
and  Connecticut  the  governors  refused  to  allow  the  militia  to  go 
out  of  the  State,  save  to  repel  invasion.  That  argument  lasted  but 
a short  time,  however,  for  the  country  was  invaded  and  the  city  of 
Washington  captured  and  burned.  The  treaty  of  peace  was 
signed  in  the  winter  of  1814,  but  before  the  news  reached  this 
country  Andrew  Jackson  had  gained  the  magnificent  victory  of 
New  Orleans,  on  January  8,  1815. 

With  the  close  of  Madison’s  administration  a new  era  in  our 
politics  began.  The  questions  of  Federalism  and  of  the  French 
or  English  friendship  were  dead,  and  new  issues  were  coming  up. 
These  were  the  tariff,  the  management  of  finances  and  the  devel- 
opment of  industry.  What  became  known  as  the  Era  of  Good 
Feeling  followed,  which  lasted  from  the  election  of  JAMES 
MONROE  (1817-1825)  up  to  1828.  Upon  Monroe’s  second 
election  in  1821,  there  was  no  opposition  to  him,  and  he  would 
have  had  the  unanimous  vote  of  the  electoral  college  had  not  one 

156 


U.  S.  POLITICAL  HIS  TORT  IN  BRIEF, 


of  the  electors  declared  that  that  honor  should  be  confined 
sacredly  to  Washington. 

It  was  the  Slavery  Question  which  put  an  end  to  the  era  of 
good  feeling,  and  which  burned  hotly,  and  more  hotly,  un' 
til  it  wrapped  the  whole  land  in  the  flames  of  civil  war.  It 
began  with  the  application  of  Missouri  for  admission  into  the 
Union  in  1820.  Prior  to  that  time  Mason  and  Dixon’s  Line, 
which  is  the  boundary  of  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania,  and  the 
Ohio  River,  formed  the  division  between  slave  States  and  free. 
Missouri  lies  beyond  the  Mississippi  River,  and  out  of  the 
limits  fixed,  and  the  question  was  a threatening  one  until  Henry 
Clay  brought  in  his  famous  Missouri  Compromise,  which  ad- 
mitted Missouri  as  a slave  State,  and  forbade  slavery  north  of 
36°  30'  north  latitude.  To  balance  Missouri  in  the  Senate, 
Maine  was  admitted  at  the  same  time  as  a free  State. 

A protective  tariff  had  been  devised  by  John  C.  Calhoun  in 
1816,  and  President  Monroe  strengthened  and  increased  the  pro- 
tection accorded.  In  1819  he  purchased  Florida  from  Spain; 
and  in  1823,  in  consequence  of  the  war  made  by  Spain  against 
her  revolted  colonies  in  the  three  Americas,  he  voiced  that 
splendid  declaration  which  will  always  be  associated  with  his 
name — the  Monroe  Doctrine.  This  doctrine  briefly  is  that  the 
United  States  will  not  interfere  in  any  European  war,  nor  will 
it  permit  European  interference  or  European  control  in 
America  North  or  South. 

No  better  proof  could  be  given  of  the  condition  of  parties 
than  the  election  which  ended  Monroe’s  tenure  of  office.  The 
electoral  college  chose  a vice-president,  John  C.  Calhoun,  but 
its  vote  for  the  presidencj^  was  so  scattered  between  Jackson, 
Adams,  Crawford  and  Clay  that  the  choice  was  thrown  into  the 
House.  Here,  by  an  alliance  of  the  friends  of  Clay  and  Adams, 
Jackson  was  defeated  and  JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS  (1825- 
1829)  became  the  sixth  president.  Claj^  was  rewarded  with  the 
portfolio  of  State,  and  out  of  the  alliance  the  “Whig”  Party 
was  formed.  Their  principles  were  in  part  those  of  the  old  Fed- 
eralists. They  were  for  a high  tariff  with  strong  protection,  and 
they  early  declared  for  a policy  of  internal  improvements  to  be 
paid  for  by  the  nation  at  large.  Jackson’s  followers  took  the 
place  of  the  old  anti-Federalists;  they  were  strict  construction- 
ists, opposed  to  the  tariff,  and  in  their  principles  and  speeches 
was  to  be  found  the  nucleus  of  the  States’  rights  doctrine.  They 
called  themselves  “ Democrats.  ” The  four  years  of  Adams’ 
presidency  was  passed  in  marshaling  and  organizing  the  two 
opposing  forces. 

ANDREW  JACKSON  (1829-1837),  the  seventh  president, 
carried  everything  before  him.  The  electoral  vote  was  178  to  83; 

15T 


WISCONSIN  ranks  second  in  hops,  third  in  barley  and  potatoes, 
fourth  in  rye  and  buckwheat,  fifth  in  oats  and  agricultural  imple- 
ments, seventh  in  iron,  steel  and  wool,  eighth  in  hay  and  milch 
cows,  ninth  in  copper,  sixteenth  in  population.  First  settle- 
ment, French,  at  Green  Bay,  in  1660.  Admitted  into  the  Union  in 
1S48. 


158 


WYOMING,  in  1880,  ranked  twelfth  among  the  States  and  Terri- 
tories in  cattle,  fourteenth  in  gold,  sixteenth  in  coal,  thirty-fourth 
in  miles  of  railway,  forty-seventh  in  population.  First  settlement, 
by  Americans,  in  1^7.  Organized  as  a territory  in  1868.  Admitted 
to  the  Union  1890. 


159 


U.  S.  POLITICAL  HISTORY  IN  BRIEF, 


the  popular,  647,231  for  Jackson,  509,097  for  Adams.  As  soon 
as  he  had  taken  up  the  reigns  of  power,  Jackson  removed  some 
five  hundred  office-holders  from  their  places,  on  Marcj’s  famous 
theory  that  “to  the  victors  belong  the  spoils.’*  Upon  this  prin- 
ciple the  tenure  of  political  office  still  practically,  if  not  theoret- 
ically, depends. 

The  Tariff  was  exceedingly  unpopular  at  the  South,  which 
was  then  as  now,  an  agricultural  rather  than  a manufacturing 
region.  Several  States  had  protested,  and  in  1830  Senator 
Hayne  laid  down  the  doctrine  of  Nullification — that  any  State 
could  declare  null  and  void  any  act  of  Congress.  Webster 
answered  this  declaration  in  the  debate  which  has  since  been 
famous.  The  original  discussion  was  not  on  the  tariff*  regula- 
tions, but  on  the  sale  of  public  lands.  The  struggle  was  a hot 
one.  Jackson  took  occasion  to  put  himself  on  record  at  once 
with  his  celebrated  toast,  “Our  Federal  Union,  it  must  be  pre- 
served.” The  words  were  first  uttered  at  a dinner  in  honor  of 
his  birthday.  Calhoun  took  the  opposite  view,  and  in  1831  the 
president’s  cabinet  was  broken  up  by  the  issue.  A new  tariff 
bill  was  passed,  but  the  South  was  still  dissatisfied,  and  in  1832 
South  Carolina  passed  the  Nullification  ordinance.  Jackson  at 
once  sent  a naval  force  into  Charleston  harbor,  and  Congress 
passed  a bill  enforcing  the  tariff;  but  Henry  Clay  again  came 
forward  with  a compromise  which  was  accepted  on  both  sides. 

The  United  States  Bank  was  the  next  bone  of  contention. 
It  had  been  chartered  in  1816  for  twenty  years.  After  a struggle 
with  Congress,  and  with  his  secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Duane, 
who  would  not  remove  the  national  deposits  from  the  bank.  Jack- 
son  dismissed  Duane  and  appointed  Taney  secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury. The  deposits  ceased.  The  Senate  at  once  passed  a vote  of 
censure  on  the  president,  but  the  House,  after  investigating  the 
bank,  sustained  Jackson  at  every  point  and  refused  a new  char- 
ter. The  fight  with  the  Senate,  in  which  there  was  an  adverse 
majority,  continued  until  the  end  of  Jackson’s  term.  During  his 
administration  was  the  first  weak  beginning  of  the  Abolition 
party.  The  Anti-Slavery  Society  was  formed  in  1833.  It  was  the 
target  for  abuse  and  violence,  which  culminated  in  the  assassina- 
tion of  Lovejoy.  Congress  solemnly  declared  that  it  would  listen 
to  no  petitions  upon  the  question  of  slavery,  and  Jackson  asked 
that  the  sending  of  abolition  documents  through  the  mails  should 
be  prohibited.  This  the  Senate  refused. 

The  Democratic  candidate,  MARTIN  VAN  BUREN  (1837- 
1841),  the  eighth  president,  was  elected  over  W.  H,  Harrison  and 
several  other  opposition  nominees,  including  Daniel  Webster.  He 
followed  out  Jackson’s  polic}^  to  the  letter,  one  part  of  which,  the 
celebrated  “specie  circular,”  brought  on  the  Great  Panic  of  1837. 

160 


U,  S,  POLITICAL  II I ST  OR  r IN  BRIEF. 


This  was  an  order  to  United  States  agents  to  receive  only  gold 
and  silver  for  public  lands.  Banks  collapsed,  money  became 
Scarce,  and  failures  were  most  frightfullj’^  numerous.  In  1840 
Van  Buren  was  renominated,  but  the  Whigs,  by  an  attack  on  the 
Democratic  financial  policy,  carried  the  country  and  elected 
W.  H.  HARRISON  (1841)  the  ninth  president.  It  was  in  this 
campaign  that  the  abolitionists  produced  their  first  national  plat- 
form, which  favored  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  District  of 
Columbia  and  the  Territories.  In  the  same  year  the  Democracy 
at  Baltimore  resolved  that  Congress  had  no  power  to  interfere 
with  or  control  the  domestic  institutions  of  the  several  States, 
which  were  the  sole  and  proper  judges  of  everything  pertaining 
to  their  own  affairs  not  prohibited  by  the  Constitution,  and  that 
the  efforts  “ by  Abolitionists  or  others  to  interfere  with  ques- 
tions of  slaverj'^  were  calculated  “ to  lead  to  the  most  alarming 
and  dangerous  consequences,”  “ to  diminish  the  happiness  of  the 
people  and  endanger  the  stability  and  permanence  of  the  Union, 
and  ought  not  to  be  countenanced  by  anj^  friend  of  our  political 
institutions.”  The  convention  also  adopted  a resolution  to  the 
effect  that  every  attempt  to  abridge  the  rights  or  privileges  of  for- 
eign-born citizens  should  be  resisted.  This  was  aimed  at  the 
Know-nothing  tendency  then  just  appearing,  w'hich  had,  how- 
ever, no  affiliation  with  the  Abolition  movement,  already  vig- 
orous. 

Harrison  did  not  live  out  the  year,  and  he  was  succeeded  by 
the  vice-president,  JOHN  TYLER  (1841-1845),  the  tenth  pres- 
ident. Tyler  rapidly  got  into  trouble  with  his  cabinet,  which, 
save  Webster,  deserted  him  on  issues  connected  with  his  attempt 
to  carry  out  Harrison’s  financial  polic3^  The  slavery  question 
was  pressing  forward  more  and  more  urgentW  for  solution  all 
this  time.  An  Ohio  Congressman,  Giddings,  brought  the  issue 
into  the  House  of  Representatives,  and  was  censured  by  that  body 
for  so  doing.  He  resigned  and  was  at  once  unanimously  re- 
elected. A new  tariff  bill  was  brought  in,  and  the  proposition 
then  made  for  a division  of  the  surplus  among  the  States. 

Finance,  protection,  internal  improvements,  and  indeed  every 
minor  issue,  had  to  give  way  to  the  great  puzzle  of  slaver^'.  It 
was  coming  on  for  adjustment,  and  no  hand  could  stay  it.  In  the 
campaign  of  1844  it  produced  the  dispute  over  the  re-annexation 
of  Texas.  The  Democratic  platform  declared  the  Great  Ameri- 
can Measures — the  taking  in  of  Texas  and  Oregon.  As  Texas 
would  be  a slave  territory,  the  idea  was  antagonized  in  the 
North,  but  after  a close  and  perplexed  election  JAMES  K. 
POLK  (1845-1849),  the  eleventh  president,  was  elected.  Henry 
Clay,  the  Whig  candidate,  was  beaten  by  the  vote  of  62,300 
which  was  given  to  Jas.  G.  Birney  by  the  Liberty  party. 

161 


< CO o Q UJ 

The  Republic  of  Mexico  comprises  27  States,  a federal  district 
and  the  territory  of  Lower  California.  The  principal  industries 
are  agriculture,  mining  and  stock  raising.  Climate  mild  and 
healthful  in  the  elevated  interior,  but  hot  and  pestilential  along  the 
coast.  The  Mexicans  are  a very  mixed  race,  about  one-tenth  being 
Creoles,  descendants  of  Spanish  colonists. 


1G2 


< CO  C3  C3>  UJ 


< CO  O CO  LU 


Central  America  and  West  Indies. — Central  America  consists 
of  five  independent  republics  and  the  British  colony  Balize. 
Principal  products,  coffee,  su^ar  and  dyewoods.  In  the  elevated 
interior,  gold,  silver  and  coal  abound.  Sugar,  tobacco  and  cigars, 
coffee  and  fruits  are  the  principal  products  of  Cuba.  Two  inde- 
pendent negro  republics,  Hayti  and  San  Domingo,  constitute  the 
island  of  Hayti. 


163 


U.  S.  POLITICAL  II IS  TORT  IN  BRIEF. 


The  new  administration  at  once  took  up'the  Texas  matter,  and 
the  War  with  Mexico  was  the  necessary  consequence.  The  his- 
tory of  that  struggle  will  be  found  in  its  appropriate  place  in  this 
book.  It  is  here  necessary  merely  to  point  out  the  results.  By 
the  treaty  of  Guadalupe- Hidalgo,  the  United  States  acquired  all 
that  country  which  we  now  call  the  great  West,  including  the 
treasures  of  California  and  the  Sierras.  The  northwestern  frontier 
was  fixed  at  the  49th  degree  of  north  latitude,  and  the  adminis- 
tration closed  with  the  largest  accession  of  land  that  had  yet  been 
made  to  the  Republic. 

The  Wilmot  Proviso  attempted  to  block  slavery  in  the  new 
territories,  and  Oregon  was  organized  as  free  soil.  A low  tariff 
bill  was  passed,  and  the  Whigs  got  through  a river  and  harbor 
bill  which  the  president  promptly  vetoed.  This  brought  the 
country  up  to  the  campaign  of  1848,  in  which  the  Whigs  recov- 
ered the  government.  The  platform  of  the  Democracy  made  at 
Baltimore  approved  the  Mexican  war,  congratulated  the  republic 
of  France  on  achieving  its  liberty,  and  the  world  on  the  downfall 
of  thrones  and  dominations  everywhere.  The  same  year,  at 
Philadelphia,  the  Whigs  resolved  merely  that  Zachary  Taylor 
was  the  best  man  for  president.  At  Buffalo,  in  the  same  year, 
the  Abolitionists  determined  that  they  would  forget  all  past  politi- 
cal differences  in  a common  resolve  to  maintain  the  rights  of  free 
labor  against  the  aggression  of  the  slave  power,  and  to  secure  a 
free  soil  to  a free  people.  This  convention  also  demanded  cheap 
postage;  river  and  harbor  improvements  when  required  for  the 
general  convenience;  indorsed  the  idea  of  the  homestead  law; 
and  inscribed  on  its  banner  “free  soil,  free  speech,  free  labor  and 
free  men.” 

The  magic  of  military  success  and  the  excellent  organization 
of  the  Whigs  made  ZACHARY  TAYLOR  (1849-1850)  twelfth 
president.  lie  lived  but  a short  time  and  was  succeeded  by  the 
vice-president,  MILLARD  FILLMORE  (1850-1853),  thirteenth 
president. 

With  1850  what  might  be  called  the  war  period  of  American 
politics  began.  In  this  year  was  introduced  the  Clay  compro- 
mise, which  admitted  California  as  a free  State,  but  on  the  other 
hand  altered  the  Fugitive  Slave  Laws,  which  inflamed  the  North 
to  the  point  of  war.  Several  of  the  States  met  the  action  of 
Congress  by  personal  liberty  laws,  which  really  amounted  to  nul- 
lification. The  old  parties  broke  up;  there  were  Democrats,  and 
Free  Soil  Democrats,  and  Whigs.  Winfield  Scott,  the  Whig  can- 
didate, carried  only  four  States  in  the  Union,  and  FRANKLIN 
PIERCE  (1853-1857),  the  fourteenth  president,  was  elected. 

There  was  soon  actual  fighting,  on  the  dividing  line  between 
North  and  South.  The  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  repealed  the  Mis- 

164 


U.  S.  POLITICAL  HIS  TORT  IN  BRIEF. 


souri  compromise  and  made  all  new  territory  open  to  slavery. 
The  Whig  party  split  in  two  on  this  issue,  one  of  the  sections  be- 
coming the  Republican  party  of  the  day,  the  other  going  over 
finally  to  the  Democrats,  a fact  which  will  account  for  much  of 
the  confusion  on  purely  financial  and  tariff  issues  to  be  found  in 
both  those  parties  to-da3^  When  you  find  a Republican  who  is  a 
free  trader,  or  a Democrat  who  is  a protectionist,  the  anomaly  is 
to  be  traced  directly  to  the  fissure,  and  the  new  sides  taken  in  the 
1850’s  on  the  free  soil  question. 

Passions  were  at  fever  heat.  In  Kansas  the  “Jay hawkers”  and 
the  “Border  Ruffians”  were  already  at  each  other’s  throats.  It 
was  plain  that  the  matter  in  dispute  could  only  be  settled  by  an 
appeal  to  the  arbitrament  of  arms. 

In  1856  the  Republicans  nominated  their  first  candidate,  Gen. 
John  C.  Fremont,  “the  Pathfinder.”  Their  platform  recites  that 
the  convention  was  called  without  regard  to  previous  political 
differences,  to  enable  all  opposed  to  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri 
compromise  to  come  together.  The  platform  opposed  the  exten- 
sion of  slavery  into  the  territories;  declared  that  Congress 
should  prohibit  in  the  territories  “the  twin  relics  of  barbarism, 
polygamy  and  slavery;”  and  opposed  all  prescriptive  legislation, 
thus  antagonizing  the  Democracy  on  the  slavery  issue  and  the 
Know-nothings  on  nativism.  The  Whigs  met  at  Baltimore. 
Their  platform  is  devoted  exclusive!}^  to  a denunciation  of  “geo- 
graphical parties,”  and  a recommendation  of  Millard  Fillmore, 
the  American  or  “Know-nothing”  candidate  for  President.  The 
Democrats  added  little  to  former  platforms,  save  that  they  de- 
clared against  the  Know-nothings  on  their  war  on  foreigners, 
and  agreed  with  them  in  their  declaration  against  intervention 
with  slavery.  Thej^  nominated  and  elected  JAMES  BU- 
CHANAN (1857-1861),  fifteenth  president.  Fremont,  however, 
polled  a popular  vote  of  1,341,264  against  Buchanan’s  1,838,169, 
while  Fillmore  received  874,534. 

The  Dred  Scott  Case  now  came  on  to  exacerbate  still  more 
bitterly  public  feeling.  Chief  Justice  Taney  declared  that  a 
negro  was  a chattel,  that  the  compromise  of  1820  was  unconsti- 
tutional, and  that  a slave-owner  might  settle  with  his  property 
where  he  pleased,  in  any  territory.  Following  this  came  John 
Brown’s  raid  into  Virginia — his  attempt  to  excite  a slave  insur- 
rection, and  his  death  upon  the  gallows.  There  was  nothing  for 
it  but  war,  and  into  war  the  country  rapidly  drifted. 

The  campaign  of  i860  was  the  most  confused  in  the  whole 
history  of  American  politics.  There  was  talk  of  secession  in 
the  air.  There  was  notoriously  war  preparation  in  the  South. 
The  North  was  divided.  Every  man  felt  that  parties  would  have 
to  be  re-arranged  and  new  political  frontiers  defined.  The 

165 


U.  S.  POLITICAL  HIS  TORT  IN  BRIEF, 


“Constitutional  U nion”  party  met  at  Baltimore.  All  it  demanded 
was  the  “Constitution  of  the  country,  the  union  of  the  States,  and 
the  enforcement  of  the  laws.”  The  Republicans  met  at  Chi- 
cago. The  platform  is  the  most  significant  in  the  political  his- 
tory of  the  republic,  and  contains  the  essence  of  all  its  history 
since  that  date.  It  denounced  the  threats  of  disunion  made  by 
Democrats  in  Congress  as  an  “avowal  of  contemplated  treason” 
which  it  was  the  duty  of  the  people  to  “rebuke  and  forever 
silence.”  It  asserted  that  the  normal  condition  of  all  the  terri- 
tory of  the  United  States  is  that  of  freedom;  that  the  reopening 
of  the  slave  trade  was  a crime  against  humanity;  that  duties 
should  be  adjusted  so  as  to  encourage  the  development  of  the 
industrial  interests  of  the  whole  country;  that  Congress  should 
pass  a complete  and  satisfactory  homestead  law;  that  the  rights 
of  citizenship  enjoyed  by  foreigners  should  not  be  abridged  or 
impaired;  that  the  rights  of  all  citizens,  native  or  naturalized, 
should  be  protected  abroad  and  at  home.  The  Douglas  Demo- 
cratic platform,  adopted  at  Charleston,  favored  the  acquisition 
of  Cuba;  declared  that  State  legislatures  which  interfered  with 
the  enforcement  of  the  fugitive  slave  law  were  revolutionary  and 
subversive  of  the  Constitution;  and  reaffirmed  the  Cincinnati 
platform  of  1856  on  tariff.  The  Breckinridge  platform,  adopted 
at  Charleston  and  Baltimore,  reaffirmed  the  Democratic  platform 
adopted  at  Cincinnati,  with  certain  “explanatory  resolutions,” 
which  in  substance  were  that  slave-owners  had  a right  “to  settle 
with  their  property”  in  the  territories  without  being  interfered 
with  by  territorial  or  congressional  legislation. 

On  these  issues  four  candidates  were  put  in  the  field.  The 
Republicans  nominated  Abraham  Lincoln;  the  Democrats,  J.  C. 
Breckinridge;  the  Constitutional  Union  party,  John  Bell;  the 
Independent  Democrats,  Stephen  A.  Douglas.  ABRAHAM 
LINCOLN  (1861-1865)  was  chosen  sixteenth  president,  by  a 
popular  vote  of  1,866,352;  Douglas  received  1,375,157;  Breckin- 
ridge,  845,763;  Bell,  589,581. 

On  December  20,  i860.  South  Carolina  declared  that  the 
Union  was  dissolved,  and  a Secession  resolution  was  passed. 
Following,  six  other  slave  States  immediately  seceded.  Ever}^ 
effort  was  made  to  stem  the  tide  of  disunion,  but  nothing  could 
be  done  save  with  arms  in  the  field.  A peace  congress  met  and 
proved  futile.  The  Crittenden  compromise  was  scoffed  out  of 
court.  The  Confederate  States  of  America  was  formed  at 
Montgomery,  Alabama,  in  February,  1861,  with  Jefferson  Davis 
as  president,  and  slavery  and  low  tariffs  as  its  corner  stone. 
The  first  ball  was  fired  April  14,  1861,  and  the  great  issue  of  the 
century  joined. 

For  the  time  politics  were  relegated  to  the  background. 
IG6 


U.  S.  POLITICAL  HISTORT  IN  BRIEF, 


There  were  only  Unionists  and  Secessionists.  The  financing  of 
the  great  struggle  led  to  a high  tariff,  the  issue  of  treasury  notes, 
and  finally  the  establishment  of  the  national  banking  system. 
The  internal  revenue  system  was  developed,  an  income  tax  was 
imposed,  greenbacks  were  issued,  and  the  resources  of  the 
country  marshaled  to  meet  the  expenses  of  a war  that  cost 
$1,000,000  a day. 

On  Jan.  i,  1863,  President  Lincoln  issued  the  Emancipation 
Proclamation,  which  freed  the  Southern  slaves,  and  marks  an 
epoch  in  the  history  of  the  world.  Two  years  later,  under  the 
apple  tree  at  Appomattox,  Lee  surrendered  to  Grant,  and  the 
war  ended  with  the  complete  triumph  of  the  Northern  arms. 
There  had  in  the  meantime  been  another  presidential  election, 
in  which  Lincoln  defeated  George  B.  McClellan  and  John  C. 
Fremont.  Shortly  after  Lee’s  surrender  Lincoln  was  assassi- 
nated by  J.  Wilkes  Booth,  an  actor,  and  ANDREW  JOHNSON 
(1865-18^),  the  seventeenth  president,  took  up  the  chief  magis- 
tracy. 

The  problem  of  the  day  was  the  Reconstruction  of  the  old 
slave  States,  upon  which  the  new  president  and  his  party  at 
once  quarreled.  The  point  at  issue  was  the  proper  safe-guarding 
of  the  newly -freed  negro.  Congress  passed  the  Civil  Rights 
bill,  the  Freedman’s  Bureau  bill,  and  submitted  the  XIVth 
Amendment  to  the  Constitution.  The  president  was  finally 
impeached  by  Congress,  but  his  trial  before  the  Senate  resulted 
in  an  acquittal  by  one  vote. 

ULYSSES  S.  GRANT  (1869-1877),  the  eighteenth  president, 
was  elected  over  Horatio  Seymour,  on  a platform  adopted  by  the 
Republicans  at  Chicago,  which  denounced  repudiation;  favored 
suffrage  on  equal  terms  to  all  men;  encouraged  immigration  and 
declared  itself  in  sympathy  with  all  oppressed  people  who  are 
struggling  for  their  rights.  The  Democratic  platform  of  1868 
acknowledged  that  the  questions  of  slavery  and  secession  had 
been  forever  settled  by  the  war  or  by  constitutional  conventions; 
and  favored  amnesty  for  all  political  offenses.  It  made  a very 
distinct  pronouncement  on  tariff  in  the  following  words:  “A 
tariff  for  revenue  upon  foreign  imports,  and  such  eqyal  taxation 
under  the  internal  revenue  laws  as  will  afford  incidental  pro- 
tection to  domestic  manufactures,  and  as  will,  without  impair- 
ing the  revenue,  impose  the  least  burden  upon,  and  best  promote 
and  encourage,  the  great  industrial  interests  of  the  country.” 

The  XVth  Amendment,  guaranteeing  negro  suffrage,was  passed 
by  Congress  in  1869.  A Liberal  Republican  ticket,  with  Horace 
Greeley  at  its  head,  was  supported  by  the  united  opposition 
against  Grant  in  1872,  but  was  defeated  easily,  and  Greeley,  one 
of  the  greatest  figures  in  later  American  politics,  died  sliortly 

167 


U,  S.  POLITICAL  HISTORY  IN  BRIEF. 


afterwards.  The  South  was  pacified,  and  the  Treaty  of  Wash- 
ington made,  which  involved  the  payment  of  the  Alabama 
claims  by  the  English  Government. 

In  1876  occurred  the  famous  Hayes  and  Tilden  Controversy, 
which  tested  the  fiexibility  of  our  electoral  machinery  so  se- 
verely. Tilden  was  the  Democratic  nominee,  and  he  had  an 
undoubted  popular  majority — 4,284,265,  against  4,033,295  for 
Hayes.  Rival  electors  claimed  to  have  been  elected  in  Louisiana 
and  Florida.  Intimidation,  fraud  and  illegal  voting  were 
charged,  and  Congress  finally  appointed  the  Electoral  Commis- 
sion to  settle  the  dispute,  as  there  was  nothing  in  the  Constitu- 
tion to  cover  the  circumstances.  On  a party  vote  the  commission 
awarded  the  disputed  electoral  votes  to  the  Republican  candidate, 
thus  making  RUTHERFORD  B.  HAYES  (1877-1881)  nine- 
teenth president  of  the  United  States.  Specie  payment  was  re- 
sumed during  this  administration, and  the  silver  coinage  act  passed. 

From  this  time  on  to  the  present  the  tariff  issue  has  been  the 
chief  matter  of  debate  in  each  campaign.  In  1880  the  Republi- 
cans elected  JAMES  A.  GARFIELD  (1881)  twentieth  presi- 
dent. He  was  assassinated  by  a madman,  Charles  J.  Guiteau, 
and  CHESTER  A.  ARTHUR  (1881-1885)  became  twenty- 
first  president.  The  most  important  measure  of  this  administra- 
tion was  the  passage  of  the  Pendleton  civil  service  reform  bill. 

GROVER  CLEVELAND  (1885-1889),  the  twenty-second 
president,  was  the  first  Democrat  chosen  since  the  war.  Out  of 
his  famous  tariff  reform  message  the  Democratic  platform  of 
1888  was  stated  at  St.  Louis,  and  the  country  was  invited  to 
choose  squarely  between  protection  as  represented  by  Benjamin 
Harrison,  the  Republican  candidate,  and  a tariff  revision  as  rep- 
resented by  Cleveland. 

The  result  was,  after  one  of  the  most  remarkable  struggles  in 
American  politics,  already  known  by  its  well  earned  name  of 
the  Campaign  of  Intellect,  that  BENJAMIN  HARRISON 
(1889 — . . . ) was  elected  twenty-third  president  of  the 
United  States, 


THE  BY-WAYS  OF  AMERICAN  POLITICS.  — The  minor 

American  parties  which  h^ve  appeared  and  disappeared  during  our  century  and 
over  of  national  life  are  the  following  ; Anti-Renters,  a New  York  party  which 
flourished  about  1841.  They  resisted  the  collection  of  back  rents  on  the  Van  Rens- 
selaer manor  near  Albany.  They  had  strength  enough  to  defeat  Wright,  the  regular 
Democratic  candidate  for  Governor  of  New  York.  Bam-bumerS,  New  York, 
1846,  seceders  from  the  Democratic  party.  They  were  opposed  to  slavery  extension. 
BucktailS,  New  York,  about  1815;  they  supported  Madison.  Conservatives, 
New  York  and  some  other  States,  1837:  paper  money  Democrats.  DOUghfaces, 
1820,  Northern  members  of  Congress  who  voted  in  favor  of  the  Missouri  compro- 
mise. Hunkers,  New  York,  a faction  of  the  Democrats  favoring  the  South,  Barn- 
burners being  the  other  factor,  KnoW-NothlngS,  New  York,  1854,  opposed  to 
naturalization  of  foreigners  unless  they  had  been  twenty-one  years  in  the  country. 

168 


U.  S.  POLITICAL  HISTORT  IN  BRIEF, 


LOCO-FOCOS,  New  York,  1835;  a branch  of  the  Democratic  party.  Liberal 
Republicans,  1872;  Republicans  who  joined  with  the  Democrats  in  support  of 
Greeley  for  president.  Temperance,  or  Prohibition,  from  1830  down,  in  inany 
States ; in  favor  of  preventing  or  restricting  the  sale  of  liquors.  The  total  Prohibition 
vote  at  the  Presidential  election  in  1888  was  249,937.  Woman’s  Rights,  from 
i860  down;  those  who  favored  granting  to  women  the  right  of  suffrage. 


PRESIDENTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Native  State 

> 

u 

u 

Inaug- 

U RATED. 

Name. 

os 

H 

W) 

ta 

u 

z 

< 

z 

ta 

g 

u 

d 

u 

> 

0 

Politics. 

Place  of  Death. 

Goorge  Washington. 

Va.... 

English.. . 

Va.... 

1789 

57 

Fed.  . 

Mount  Vernon,1799 

John  Adams 

Mass. 

English.. . 

Mass. 

1797 

62 

Fed.  . 

Quincy,  Mass.,  1826 

Thomas  Jefferson  . . . 

Va.. . . 

Welsh.... 

Va.... 

1801 

58 

Rep. . 

Monticello,Va.  1826 

James  Madison 

Va.... 

English. . . 

Va.... 

1809 

58 

Rep. . 

Montpelier.  V a.  1836 

James  Monroe 

Va.... 

Scotch 

Va.... 

1817 

59 

Rep. . 

N ewY  ork  City,  173 1 

John  Quincy  Adams. 

Mass. 

English. . . 

Mass. 

1825 

58 

Rep. . 

Washington,  1848 
Hermitage,  Ten., ’45 

Andrew  Jackson. . . . 

S.  C.. 

Scot-  Irish. 

Tenn 

1829 

62 

Dem.. 

Martin  Van  Buren. . 

N.  Y.. 

Dutch 

N.  Y.. 

1837 

65 

Dem.. 

Kinderhook  N Y,’62 

William  H.  Harrison 

Va.... 

English. . . 

Ohio.. 

1841 

58 

Whig. 

Washington,  1841 

John  Tyler 

Va.... 

English. . . 

Va.... 

1841 

51 

Dem.. 

Richmond,  Va,  1862 

James  K.  Polk 

N.  C.. 

Scot- Irish. 

Tenn. 

1845 

60 

Dem.. 

Nashville,Ten,  1849 

Zachary  Taylor. .... 

Va.... 

English. . . 

La... 

1849 

55 

Whig. 

Washington,  1850 

Millard  Fillmore 

N.  Y.. 

English. . . 

N.  Y.. 

1850 

60 

Whig. 

Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  187 

Franklin  Pierce. . .. 

N.  H. 

English. . . 

N.  H. 

1853 

49 

Dem.. 

Concord,  N.H,1869 

James  Buchanan 

Pa.  .. 

Scot- Irish. 

Pa... 

1857 

60 

Dem.. 

Wheatland,Pa,1868 

Abraham  Lincoln . . . 

Ky... 

English. . . 

III.... 

1861 

62 

Rep. . 

Washington,  1865 
Greenville,  Ten,  ’75 

Andrew  J ohnson 

N.  C. 

English.. . 

Tenn. 

1865 

57 

Rep. . 

Ulysses  S.  Grant  — 

Ohio.. 

Scotch. .. . 

111.... 

1869 

47 

Rep. . 

MtM 'Gregor  NY’85 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes 

Ohio.. 

English.  . 

Ohio.. 

1877 

55 

Rep. . 

„ 

James  A.  Garfield. . . 

Ohio.. 

English. . . 

Ohio.. 

1881 

49 

Rep. . 

Long  BrancTl,  1881 

Chester  A.  Arthur. . . 

Vt. . . . 

Scot- Irish. 

N.  Y.. 

1881 

51 

Rep. . 

New  York  City, 1886 

Grover  Cleveland. . . 

N.  J.. 
Ohio.. 

English. . . 
English. . . 

N.  Y.. 

1885 

48 

66 

Dem.. 

Benjamin  Harrison. . 

Ind. . . 

1889 

Rep. . 

GENERALS  COMMANDING  THE  U.  S.  ARMY. 


From 

To 

From 

To 

George  Washington. 

Henry  Knox 

Josiah  Harmer 

Arthur  St.  Clair 

James  Wilkinson..  . . 
George  Washington. 
James  Wilkinson.. . . 
Henry  Dearborn. . . . 
Jacob  Brown  

1775 

1783 

1788 

1791 

1796 

1799 

1800 
1812 
1815 

1783 

1784 
1791 
1796 

1798 

1799 
1812 
1815 
1828 

Alexander  Macomb 

Winfield  Scott 

George  B.  McClellan 
Henry  W.  Halleck. . 
Ulysses  S.  Grant.  . . 
William  T.  Sherman 
Philip  H.  Sheridan.  . 
John  M.  Schofield..  . 

1828 

1841 

1861 

1862 

1864 

1869 

1883 

1888 

1841 

1861 

1862 

1864 

1869 

1883 

1888 

If  a railway  were  built  to  the  sun,  and  trains  upon  it  were 
run  at  the  rate  0130  miles  an  hour,  day  and  night,  without  a stop, 
it  would  require  350  years  to  make  the  journey  from  the  earth  to 
the  sun.  169 


WARS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Statement  of  the  Number  of  United  States  Troops  Engaged. 


Wars. 

From — 

To— 

Regu- 

lars. 

Militia 

AND 

V 0 L U N- 
TEERS. 

Total. 

W^ar  of  the  Revolution. 
Northwestern  Indian  wars 
War  with  France  . . . 

War  with  Tripoli. . . . 

Apr  19,  1775 
Sept  19, 1790 
July  9,1798 
June  10,  1801 

Apr  11. 1783 
Aug  3,  1795 
Sept  30, 1800 
June  4,  1805 
Aug  9,1814 

130,711 

164,080 

309,781 

8,983 

<*4,593 

*3,330 

13,781 

Creek  Indian  war  . . . 

July  27, 1813 

600 

13,181 

War  1812  with  Gt.  Britain 

June  18,  1812 

Feb  17, 1815 

85,000 

471,622 

576,622 

Seminole  Indian  war 

Nov  20,  1817 

Oct  21, 1818 

1,000 

6,911 

7,911 

Black  Hawk  Indian  war. 
Cherokee  disturbance  or 

Apr  21, 1831 

Sept  31, 1832 

1,339 

5,126 

6,465 

removal 

Creek  Indian  war  or  dis- 

1836 

1837 

9,494 

9,494 

turbance  

May  5,1836 

Sept  30, 1837 

935 

12,483 

13,418 

Florida  Indian  war 

Dec  23, 1835 

Aug  14, 1843 

11,169 

29,953 

41,122 

Aroostook  disturbance... 

1838 

1839 

1,500 

1,500 

War  with  Mexico 

Apache,  Navajo,  and 

Apr  24, 1846 

July  4,1848 

30,954 

73,776 

112,230 

Utah  war 

1849 

1855 

1,500 

1,061 

2,561 

Seminole  Indian  war 

1856 

1858 

3,687 

2,687 

2,772,408 

Civil  wart 

1861 

1865 

* Naval  forces  engaged.  T The  number  of  troops  on  the  Confederate  side  was 
about  600, oco. 

The  number  of  casualties  in  the  volunteer  and  regular 
armies  of  the  United  States,  during  the  war  of  1861*65,  was  re- 
ported by  the  Provost  Marshal  General  in  1866  : Killed  in  battle, 
61,362  ; died  of  wounds,  34,727  ; died  of  disease,  183,287  ; total 
died,  279,376  ; total  deserted,  199,105.  Number  of  soldiers  in  the 
Confederate  service  who  died  of  wounds  or  disease  (partial  state-  - 
merit),  133,821.  Deserted  (partial  statement),  104,428.  Number 
of  United  States  troops  captured  during  the  war,  212,608  ; Con- 
federate troops  captured,  476,169.  Number  of  United  States 
troops  paroled  on  the  field,  16,431  ; Confederate  troops  paroled 
on  the  field,  248,599.  Number  of  United  States  troops  who  died 
while  prisoners,  29,725  ; Confederate  troops  who  died  while  pris- 
oners, 26,774. 


The  Bible. 

There  is  no  date  from  beginning  to  end  in  the  Bible.  It  com- 
prises some  60  documents,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  written 
by  about  40  men  ; 54  miracles  are  recorded  in  the  Old  and  51  in 
the  New  Testament;  total,  105.  The  shortest  verse  in  the  Old 
Testament  is  “Remember  Lot’s  wife.”  There  is  one  in  the  New 
Testament  as  short  as  John  xi.  35,  in  point  of  words,  but  not  in 
letters,  viz:  Thessalonians  v.  16,  “Rejoice  evermore.”  Then 
there  are  2 chapters  in  the  Bible  alike  verbatim,  and  i book, 
Esther,  in  which  the  Deity  is  not  mentioned. 

170 


THE  CIVIL  WAR  OF  1861-66. 


Number  of  Men  in  the  Union  Army  Furnished  by  Each  State  and 
Territory,  from  April  16, 1861,  to  Close  of  War. 


Number 
OF  Men 
Furnish’d 

Aggregate 
Reduced  to 
A Three 
Years’ 
Standing. 

2,556 

1,611 

8,289 

7,836 

15,725 

15,725 

4,903 

3,697 

55,864 

50,623 

12,284 

10,322 

1,290 

1,290 

259,092 

214,133 

196,363 

153,576 

76,242 

68,630 

20,149 

18,706 

75,760 

70,832 

5,224 

4,654 

70,107 

56,776 

46,638 

41,275 

146,730 

124,104 

87,364 

80,111 

24,020 

19,693 

545 

545 

109,111 

86,530 

3,157 

2,175 

1,080 

1,080 

33,937 

30,849 

76,814 

57,908 

States  and 
Territories. 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana  

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts  . , 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 
New  Jersey 


States  and 
Territories. 


448,850 

3,156 

313,180 

1,810 

337,936 

23,236 


31,092 

1,965 

33,288 


New  York 

North  Carolina, 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania  . . , 
Rhode  Island. . . 
South  Carolina.. 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West  Virginia. . . 
Wisconsin. . , 

Dakota 

Dist  of  Columbia 
Indian  Territory 
Montana. . . . 
New  Mexico 

Utah 

Washington  Ter 

U S Army 

U S Volunteers 
U S col’r’d  troops 


Total 2,772,408 


Number 
OF  Men 
Furnish’d 


32,068 

91,327 

206 

16,534 

3,530 


6,561 

"964 


93,441 


Aggregate 
Reduced 
TO  A Three 
Years’ 
Standing. 


392,270 

3,156 

240,514 

1,773 

265,517 

17,866 

*26,394 

1,632 

29,068 

’27*714 

79,260 

206 

11,506 

3,530 

’*4, *432 

*‘’*964 


91,789 


2,320,272 


The  armies  of  the  United  States  were  commanded  during  the 
war  of  the  Rebellion  by  President  Lincoln  as  commander-in- 
chief under  the  constitutional  provision;  and  under  him,  as 
general  commanders,  by  Brevet  Lieutenant  General  Winfield 
Scott  until  Nov.  6,  i86i;  by  Major  General  George  B.  McClellan 
from  Nov.  6,  i86i,  to  March  ii,  1862;  by  Major  General  Henrj^ 
W.  Halleck  from  July  ii,  1862,  to  March  12,  1864  (there  be- 
ing no  general  commander  between  March  ii  and  July  ii, 
1862);  and  Lieutenant  General  and  General  U.  S.  Grant  from 
March  12,  1864,  to  March  4,  1869.  The  first  of  the  principal 
armies  into  which  the  force  of  the  United  States  was 
divided  was  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  This  army  was 
called  into  existence  in  July,  1861,  and  was  organized 
by  Major  General  George  B.  McClellan,  its  first  commander^ 
Nov.  5,  1862,  Major  General  A.  E.  Burnside  took  com- 
mand of  it;  Jan.  25,  1863,  Major  General  Joe  Hooker  was 
placed  in  command,  and  June  27,  1863,  Major  General  George 
G.  Meade  succeeded  him.  The  Army  of  the  Ohio  was  organ- 
ized by  General  D.  C.  Buell,  under  a general  order  from  the 

171 


THE  CIVIL  WAR  OF  1861-65. 


War  Department  dated  Nov.  9,  1861,  from  troops  in  the  military 
department  of  the  Ohio.  General  Buell  remained  in  command 
until  Oct.  30,  1862,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  General  W.  S. 
Rosecrans.  At  this  time  the  Army  of  the  Ohio  became  the 
Army  of  the  ^Cumberland  and  a^  new  department  of  the  Ohio 
was  formed  and  Major  General  H.  G.  Wright  assigned  to  the 
command  thereof.  He  was  succeed  by  Major  General  Burn- 
side, who  was  relieved  by  Major  General  J.  G.  Foster  of  the 
command  of  both  department  and  army.  Major  General  Scho- 
field took  command  Jan.  28,  1864,  and  Jan.  17,  1865,  the  de- 
partment was  merged  into  the  Department  of  the  Cumberland. 
The  Army  of  the  Cumberland  was  formed  of  the  Army  of  the 
Ohio,  as  above  noted.  It  continued  under  the  command  of  Gen- 
eral Rosecrans  until  October,  1863,  when  General  George  H. 
Thomas  took  command  of  it.  The  Army  of  theTennessee  was 
originally  the  Army  of  the  District  of  Western  Tennessee, 
fighting  as  such  at  Shiloh.  It  became  the  Army  of  theTennessee 
on  the  concentration  of  troops  at  Pittsburgh  Landing  under  Gen- 
eral Halleck,  and  when  the  Department  of  the  Tennessee  was 
formed, Oct.  16, 1862,  the  troops  serving  therein  were  placed  under 
command  of  Major  General  U.  S.  Grant.  Oct.  27,  1863,  Major 
General  William  T.  Sherman  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
this  army;  March  12, 1864,  Major  General  J.  B.  McPherson  suc- 
ceeded him;  July  30,  1864,  McPherson  having  been  killed,  Major 
General  O.  O.  Howard  was  placed  in  command,  and  May  19, 
1862,  Major  General  John  A.  Logan  succeeded  him.  Other 
minor  armies  were  the  Army  of  Virginia,  which  was  formed  by- 
the  consolidation  of  the  forces  under  Major  Generals  Fremont, 
Banks  and  McDowell,  by  order  of  the  War  Department,  Aug. 
12,  1862.  Major  General  John  Pope  was  placed  in  command, 
but  after  the  disastrous  defeat  of  this  general  at  Manassas  the 
army  as  such  was  discontinued  and  its  troops  transferred  to  other 
organizations.  The  Army  of  the  James  was  formed  of  the  Tenth 
and  Fourteenth  corps  and  cavalry,  and  was  placed  under  thp 
command  of  Major  General  Butler.  Its  operations  were  carried 
on  in  conjunction  with  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  Other  tem- 
porary arrangements  of  the  troops  formed  the  Army  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi in  the  Mississippi  River  operations  in  1862;  the  Army  of 
the  Gulf  in  Louisiana  in  May,  1863;  the  Army  of  West-Vir- 
ginia,  in  the  valley  of  the  Shenandoah,  in  May,  1864,  and  the 
^rmy  of  the  Middle  Military  Division  in  Virginia  in  the  fall  of 

i86jj. 


A HORSE  will  live  25  days  without  solid  food,  merely  drinking 
watei';  17  days  without  either  eating  or  drinking;  and  only  5 
days  when  eating  solid  food  without  drinking. 

172 


19 

20 

5 

12 

21 

10 

-14 

20 

21 

7 

7 

8 

18 

862 

8 

8 

16 

8 

14 

23 

6-7 

10 

5 

25 

29 

30 

31 

1 

8 

9 

26 

27 

1 

5 

9 

22 

27 

29 

30 

-30 

1 

14 

15 

17 

-20 

3-5 

8 

7 

13 

-29 

863 

11 

3 

1 


PRINCIPAL  BATTLES  OF  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 


Place. 

Federai.  Toss. 

CONFED.  Loss. 

Borabard’nt  Ft.  Sumter. 
Riot  Baltimore 

no  one  hurt 

3 k,  7 w 

7 k,  8 w 

16  k.  34  w.  6 m 

Carthage,  Mo 

13  k,  31  w 

250  k & w 

Rich  Mountain,  W.  Va. . , 

11  k,  35  w 

140  k,  150  w 

Bull  Run,  Va 

. . .4500  k;  w,  p,  28  c 

1852  k & w 

Wilson’s  Creek,  Mo 

Cheat  Mountain,  W.  Va. 

..481  k,  1011  w,700p 
.223  k.  721  w,  292  m 

13  k,  20  w,  60  p 

. .42  k,  108  w,  1624  p 

...421  k,  1317  w,  3 m 

100  k&w,  20  p 

25  k,  75  w 

Ball’s^BlufF,  Va 

. .220  k,  266  w,  500  p 

36  k,  264  w,  2 p 

. . .84  k,  288  w,  285  m 

..261  k,  427  w,  278  m 
..kandw  no  report 

2500  p,  42  guns  c 

.400  k and  w,  2000  p 
1.300  p 

8 k,  23  w,  250  p 

6 k,  24  w 

Milford,'  Mo 

2 k,  17  w 

39  k,  207w 

192  k,  140  p 

50  k,  150  w 

....30k,50  w,25()0p 

231  k.  1007  w,  15000  p 
1100  k,  2500  w,  1600  p 
. . .50  k,  200  w,  200  p 

600  k&w,  300  p 

1728  k,  8012  w,  959  m 
17  k,  6300p 

.446  k.  1735  w,  150  p 

Fort  Donelson,  Tenn . . . 

91  k,  466  w 

100  k,  400  w 

Pittsburg  Landing,  Tenn. 

1614  k,  7721  w,  3963  m 

Williamsburg^  Va 

. . .2073  k & w,  623  p 

700  k,  1000  w,  300  p 

Winchester,  Va 

FTanover  C.  H , Va 

53  k,  526  m 

500  k & w,  ^0  p 

Corinth,  Minn  

Fair  Oaks,  Va 

890  k,  3627  w,  1222  p 
5739  k & w 

2800  k,  3897  w 

Fair  Oaks,  Va 

8000  k&w 

Cross  Keys,  Va 

60()  k&w 

Port  Republic,  Va 

. . .67  k,  361  w,  574  m 

1060  k.  w & m 

Chickahominy,  Va 

80  k,  150w 

1 000  k&w 

Gaines  Mills,  Va,... 

About  the  same 

Malvern  Hill,  Va 

Nearly  5000 

Baton  Rouge,  La 

600  k.  w & m 

Gedar  Mountain,  Va 

1000  k,  1500  w 

Gallatin,  Tenn 

. . . 110  k&w 

Kettle  Run,  Va 

. . .800  k&w,  1000  p 
12000  k.  w & m 

Gro  ve  ton,  Va 

Bull  Run  2nd 

.800  k,  4000  w,  3000  p 
..200  k,700w,  2000 p 

. . .700  k.  3000  w 

Richmond,  Ky 

250  k,  500  w 

Chantilly,  Va 

800  k&w 

South  mountain,  Md 

Harper’s  F’y,  3 d’ys’  siege 
Antietam,  Md 

. 443  k,  1806  w,  76  m 
.80  k,  120  w,  11583  p 
12500  loss 

500  k,  2343  w,  1500  p 
1500  k&w 

15000  loss 

luka.  Miss 

135  k,  527  w 

. .263  k,  400  w,  600  p 
1423  k,  2268  p,  5692  w 
1300  k,  3000  w,  200  p 
1500  k&w 

Corinth,  Miss 

315  k,  1812  w,  232  m 
3200  k.  w and  m 

Perry ville,  Ky 

Prairie  Grove,  Ark  

495  k,  600  w 

Fredericksburg.  Va 

1512  k,  6000  w,  2078  p 
. .191  k,  982  w,  756  m 

1800  k&w 

Vicksburg 

no  report 

Stone  River,  Tenn 

1533  k,  6000  w 

. .9000  k&w,  1000  p 
. . .550  k&w,  5000  p 
. .100  k,  400  w,  300  p 
1500  k,  w & m 

Fort  Hindman,  Ark 

1000  k,  w & m 

Fort  Donelson,  Tenn 

12  k,  20  w 

Suffolk.  Va 

173 


PRINCIPAL  BATTLES  OF  THE  CIVIL  'W AK.— Continued. 


Date. 

Place. 

Federal  Loss. 

CoNFED.  Loss. 

May  1 

“ 2 
“ 2-3 

“ 12 
“ 14 

“ 16 
“ 18-22 
“ 27 

June  6 

“ 9 

“ 14 

26 

July  1-2-3 
“ 4 

“ 4 

“ 5 

“ 8 
“ 18-19 

Sept.  9 

19-20 
“ 14 

Dec.  4 

“ 23-25 

“ 25 

“ 27 

“ 27-30 

Mar.  25, 1864 
Apr.  8-9 

“ 17-20 

May  57 

<« 

“ 12 
“ 12-15 

“ 13-15 

“ 25-28 

June  1 

“ 15-18 

22 

“ 27 

July  y 

20 

“ 22 
“ 27-30 

Aug.  5-20 
“ 15-18 

“ 19 

25 

“ 31 

Sept,  19 

“ 21 
“ 26 
29— Oct.  1 

LaGrange,  Ark 

2000  k,  w & m 

Fredericksburg,  Va 

Chancellorsville,  Va 

Tackson.  Miss 

15000  k & w,  IJOOO  p 
40  k,  240  w,  6 m 

. 18000  k&w,  .5000  p 
400  k&w 

Champion  Hills,  Miss 

426  k,  1842  w 

400  k,  w & m 

Big  Black  River,  Miss, . . . 

29  k,  242  w 

2600  k,  w & m 

Vicksburg.  Miss 

2500  loss 

no  report 

Port  Hudson  

900  k,  w & m 

600  k.  w & m 

Milliken’s  Bend.  Miss 

. .127  k,  287  w,  157  m 

200  k,  500  w 

Beverlv  Ford.  Va 

750  k.  w & m 

Winchester,  Va 

2000  k.  w & m 

850  k,  w & m 

Shelbyville,  Tenn 

....  85  k,  468  w,  13  m 

1634  p.no  rep’t  k&w 
....  total  loss  37000 

total  loss  28198 

Vicksburg  surrenders .... 
Helena,  Ark  

.245  k,  3688  w,  303  p 
250  k,  w & m 

.9(00  k & w,  30000  p 
. . .500  k&w,  1000  p 
4000  p 

Bolton,  Miss 

Port  Hudson  surrenders.  . 

5500  p 

Ft.  Wagner,  S.  C 

....  700  ic.  w & m 

500  k,  331  w 

Cumberland  Gap 

2000  p 

Chickamauga 

1644  k,9262  w,4945  m 
‘...51  k,329  w 

17000  k,  w & m 

. . .1200  k&w,  800  p 
161  Op 

Bristow  Station,  Va 

Knoxville,  Tenn 

000  k & w 

Chattanooga 

4000  k & w 

16000  k,  w & m 

Ringgold,  Ga 

300  p 

Locust  Grove,  Va 

2500  k,  w & p 

Paducah,  Ky 

Mansfield,  La 

500  k & w,  1500  p 

2000  p 

Plymouth,  N.  C 

150  k,  1700  p 

1500  k&w 

Wilderness,  Va 

loss  30000 

loss  30000 

Spottslyvania.  Va 

loss  10000 

Spottsylvania,  Va 

4000  p 

Ft.  Darling,  Va 

.'^od  k.  w & m 

no  report 

Resaca,  Ga 

700  k,  2800  w 

no  report 

Dallas,  Ga 

1800  k & w 

. . .300  p,  4000  k&w 
8000  k,  w & m 

Cold  Harbor,  Va 

9000  k.  w & m 

Petersburgh,  Va 

loss  10000 

no  report 

Weldon  R.  R , Va  

600  k & w,  1250  p 

Kennesaw  Mt.,  Ga 

1000  k & w 

no  report 

Monocracy.  Md 

1000  k & w 

Peach  Tree  Creek,  Ga, . . 

1713  k,  w & m 

. .5000  k&w,  lOlK)  p 

10000  k&w 

Atlanta.  Ga  

. . .3.521  k & w 

Petersburgh,  Va 

.5000  k.  w & m 

Mobile  Bay,  Ala 

120  k,  88  w 

no  rep’t  k&w,  1756  p 

Deep  Bottom.  Va  .... 

loss  4000 

6 Mile  Station.  Va 

30C0  k & w 

1500  p 

Weldon  R.  R.,  Va 

1000  k & w,  3000  p 

1500  k&w 

Atlanta,  Ga 

.50  k.  .50  m.  439  w 

Winchester,  Va 

3000k  &w 

5C0  k,  4000  w,  25(  0 p 

400  k & w,  1100  p 

1500  k&w 

Fisher’s  Hill 

Ironton,  Mo 

9 k.  60  w 

Petersburg,  Va 

....  .5000  k & w 

. .2800  k&w 

Oct.  19 

“ 26 

“ 27 

Nov.  30 

Dec.  15 

Cedar  Creek,  Va 

4000  k & w,  1300  p 

. .2800  k&w,  1300  p 
9(Ktk,  3800  p 

Nims’  Creek.  Mo 

2000  p,  1000  k & w 

Hatchetts  Run,  Va 

Franklin,  Tenn 

800  m,  400  k,  1500  w 
189  k,  1033  w,  1104  m 
6500  k,  w & m 

1600  k,  w & m 

1750  k,  38(0  w,  702  p 
23000  k,  w & m 

Nashville,  Tenn 

171 


PRINCIPAL  BATTLES  OF  THE  CIVIL  ySf XK.— Concluded. 


Date. 

Place. 

Federal  Loss. 

CONFED.  Loss. 

Jan. 

15, 1865 

Ft.  Fisher 

110  k,  536  w 

....440  k&w,  2500  p 

20-22 

Wilmington,  N.  C 

250  k & w 

1072  P 

Feb. 

27 

Waynesboro’,  Va 

5 k,  1352  P 

Kingston,  N.  C 

loss  1000 

. .1200  k&w,  2400  P 

74  k,774  w 

327  k,  373  P 

Mar. 

19 

loss  1646 

167  k,  1625  P 

25-27 

Petcrsburgh, Va  

180  k,  1240  w,  990  m 

...2200  k&w,  2800  P 

Apr. 

1 

Five  Forks,  Va 

loss  3000 

5000  P 

2 

Selma,  Ala  

3000  ]> 

<> 

2 3 

Petersburgh  & Richmond  . 

8000  k.  w & m 

6 

Farmville  & Sailors  Ck. . . 

6000 

9 

Surrender  of  Gen.  Lee. , . 

26115 

i< 

11 

Ft.  Blakely,  Mobile 

2000  k & w 

....500  k&w,  4300 

(( 

12 

Surrender  of  Mong’y,  Ala 

2700  p,  100 

12 

Salisbury,  N.  C 

1800  I 

<< 

26 

Surrender  of  Gen.J  ohnston 

27500  P 

May 

1 

Surrender  of  Gen.  Morgan 

1200  P 

4 

Surrender  of  Gen.  Taylor. 

10000  V 

«< 

10 

Surrenderof  TallahasseeFl 

7(^  k 

8000  P 

•4 

10 

Near  Boco,  Chico,  Tex 

70 

• 4 

10 

Capture  of  Jeff.  Davis 

“ 

26 

Surrender  of  Gen.  Smith. 

2COOOP 

In  addition  to  the  battles  given  above  there  were  421  minor  battles,  engage- 
ments and  skirmishes. 


Principal  Biaval  Battles  of  tlie  Civil  War. 

1862,  Feb.  6 — Fort  Henry,  Tenn.,  captured  by  Commodore 

Foote. 

Feb.  8 — Roanoke  Island,  N.  C.,  captured  by  Commodore 
Goldsborough  and  Gen.  Burnside. 

16 —  Fort  Donelson,  Tenn.,  combined  forces  of  Gen. 

Grant  and  Commodore  Foote. 

Mar.  8 — Confederate  ram  Merrimac  “sinks”  U.  S.  Frig- 
ates Cumberland  and  Congress,  Hampton 
Roads,  Va. 

9 — Federal  Monitor  disables  the  Merrimac. 

April  6 — Pittsburgh  Landing. 

8 — Capture  of  Island  No.  10. 

II — Fort  Pulaski,  Ga.,  cantured  by  land  and  naval 
forces. 

24 — Forts  Jackson,  St.  Phillip  and  New  Orleans. 

May  13 — Natchez,  Miss.,  captured  by  Admiral  Farragut. 
July  I — Malvern  Hill. 

1863,  Jan.  II — Fort  Hindman,  Ark.,  Admiral  Porter. 

II — U.  S.  steamer  Hatteras  sunk  by  Confederate 
Alabama. 

17 —  Monitor  Weehawken  captures  Confederate  ram 

Atlanta. 


175 


THE  CIVIL  WAR  OF  1861-65. 


May  i8 — Vicksburg,  Miss.,  Admiral  Porter. 

July  8 — Port  Hudson,  Miss.,  captured. 

8 — Natchez,  Miss. 

1864,  June  19 — U.  S.  steamer  Kearsarge  “ sinks  the  Alabama  ” off 

Cherbourg,  France. 

Aug.  5 — Mobile,  Ala.,  Admiral  Farragut. 

1865,  Jan.  15 — Fort  Fisher,  N.  C.,  captured  by  Gen.  Terry  ana 

Commodore  Porter. 

During  the  Civil  War  the  Federal  Navy  was  increased  in  two 
years  to  over  400  vessels,  the  greater  part  of  which  were  used  in 
blockading  Southern  ports  ; notwithstanding  their  vigilance  and 
effectiveness,  many  Confederate  cruirers  managed  to  escape  the 
blockade  and  destroy  the  Northern  merchant  vessels. 

At  the  present  time  (1880)  not  one-half  the  vessels  belonging 
to  the  navy  are  in  active  service  ; the  greater  portion  of  those 
in  commission  are  employed  in  what  is  called  squadron  service. 
There  are  seven  squadrons,  viz,  the  European,  the  Asiatic,  the 
North  Atlantic,  the  South  Atlantic,  the  North  Pacific,  the 
South  Pacific  and  the  Gulf  squadrons.  These  squadrons  are 
under  ‘:ommand  of  a high  naval  officer  of  the  rank  of  commo* 
dore  rear  admiral,  whose  ship  is  called  the  hag-ship  of  the 
squad’  on. 


Vessels  Captured  or  Destroyed  toy  Con- 
federate “ Cruisers.’^ 


Ship?  .... 

BrigJ 

Barkf  .... 
Schooners 


80 

46 

84 

67 


Steamboats 
Gunboats.  . 

Cutter 

Tug 


4 

2 

1 

1 


Vessels  Captured  or  Destroyed  for  Violation  of  tlie 


Blockade,  or  in  Battle,  from  May, 
1861,  to  May,  1865. 


Schooners. . . . 

. ..  735 

Gunboats 

3 

Sloops 

...  155 

Propellers  

4 

Steamers  . . . . 

...  262 

Pilot  boats 

2 

Barks 

...  27 

Boats 

8 

Brigs  

...  30 

Y achts 

2 

Ships 

. . . 13 

Tugs  

3 

Ironclads  and 

rams  . . 

..  16 

Barkentine 

1 

Brigantines.  . . 

2 

Miscellaneous  . 

Pungv 

.\  . . 86 

1 

Tin,  when  compressed  in  powder,  becomes  solid  under  a pres- 
sure of  ten  tons  on  the  square  inch,  zinc  at  thirty -eight  tons, 
antimony  at  thirty-eight  tons,  aluminum  at  thirty-eight  tons, 
bismuth  at  thirty-eight  tons,  and  copper  at  thirty-three  tons. 

176 


Cost  Of  Recent  Wars. 


Crimean  war  £340,000,000 

Italian  war  of  1859  . . 60,000,000 

American  civil  war — North  940,000,000 

“ “ “ —South 460,000,000 

Schleswig-Holstein  war  7,000,000 

Austrian  and  Prussian  war,  1866  66,000,000 

Expeditions  to  Mexico,  Morocco,  Paraguay,  etc., 

(estimated) 40,000,000 

Franco-Prussian  war 500,000,000 

Russian  and  Turkish  war,  1877 210,000,000 

Zulu  and  Afghan  wars,  1879 ^ . 30,000,000 


£2,653,000,000 


This  would  allow  $10  for  every  man,  woman  and  child  on  the 
nabitable  globe.  It  would  make  two  railways  all  around  the  world 
at  $250,000  per  mile  each.  These  figures  are  furnished  by  the 
Peace  Society,  London. 

I^osses  from  War  in  Xwenty-Five  Years  (1855-80.) 

Killed  in.battle,  or  died 
of  wounds  and  disease. 


Crimean  war 750,000 

Italian  war,  1859 45,000 

War  of  Schleswig-Holstein  3,000 

American  civil  war  — the  North 280,000 

“ ‘‘  “ —the  South  200,000 

War  between  Prussia,  Austria  and  Italy,  1866.  45,000 

Expeditions  to  Mexico,  Cochin  China, 

Morocco,  Paraguay,  etc 65,000 

Franco-German  war  of  1870-71 — France.  . . 155,000 

“ “ “ “ “ — Germany.  60,000 

*Russian  and  Turkish  war  of  1877 225,000 

Zulu  and  Afghan  wars,  1879  40,000 

Total 


1,868,000 

Crensrtli  and  Cost  of  American  Wars. 

Wars.  Length.  Cost. 

1.  War  of  the  revolution .. . 7 years — 1775-1782  $ 135,193,703 

2.  Indian  war  in  Ohio  Ter. 

3.  War  with  the  Barbary  St 


Length. 

7 years— 1775-1782  $ 
1790 

1803-1804 

1811 

3 years— 1812-1815 
1815 
1817 
1832 
1845 


4.  Tecumseh  Indian  war.  . 

5.  War  with  Great  Britain. 

6.  Algerine  war 

7.  First  Seminole  war 

8.  Black  Hawk  war 

9.  Second  Seminole  war.  . . 

10.  Mexican  war 2 years — 1846-1848 

11.  Mormon  war 1856 

12.  Civil  war 4 years— 1861-1865  $6,500,000,000 

*About  thirty  thousand  skeletons  of  Russian  and  Turkish  soldiers  were  shipped 
to  England  in  x88i,  as  manure,  in  the  form  of  bones  or  bone  dust.  L177] 


107,159,003 


66,000,000 


GREA  T BA  TTLES  OF  HIS  TORT. 

The  number  placed  hors-de-combat  in  battle  are  not  relatively 
so  large  as  formerly,  as  the  table  below  will  show: 


Thrasymene 

Men  Engaged. 

Hors-de-combat. 

Ratio. 

65,000 

17,000 

27  per  cent. 

Cannae 

. . . . 146,000 

52,000 

34 

Bannockburn  .... 

. . . . 135,000 

38,000 

28 

Agincourt 

62,000 

11,400 

18 

Crecy  

. . . . 117,000 

31,200 

27 

Marengo 

58,000 

13,000 

22 

Austerlitz  

, . . . 170,000 

23,000 

13 

Borodino 

. . . . 250,000 

78,000 

31 

Waterloo 

. . . . 145,000 

51,000 

35 

Alma 

, . . . 103,000 

8,400 

8 “ 

Sadowa 

. . . . 402,000 

33,000 

8 

Gravelotte 

. . . . 320,000 

48,500 

15 

Gettysburg 

. . . . 140,000 

8,000 

5 

According  to  Napoleon,  the  proportions  of  an  army  should 
be  70  per  cent,  infantry,  17  per  cent,  cavalry,  and  13  per  cent, 
between  artillery,  engineers  and  train. 

The  proportion  of  men  capable  of  bearing  arms  is  estimated 
at  25  per  cent,  of  the  population. 

At  the  close  of  the  Franco-German  war  the  Germans  took 
from  the  French  7.234  pieces  of  cannon,  including  3,485  field 
pieces  and  3,300  fortress  guns.  At  the  battle  of  Waterloo  the 
British  artillery  fired  9,467  rounds,  or  one  for  everj^  Frenchman 
killed. 

Xlie  Decisive  Battles  of  History. 

Actium,  B.C.  31.  The  combined  fleets  of  Antony  and  Cleo- 
patra defeated  by  Octavius,  and  imperialism  established  in  the 
person  qf  Octavius. 

Philippi,  B.C.  42.  Brutus  and  Cassius  defeated  by  Octavius 
and  Antony.  The  fate  of  the  Republic  decided. 

Metaurus,  B.C.  207.  The  Carthaginians,  under  Hasdrubul, 
were  defeated  by  the  Romans,  under  Caius  and  Marcus  Livius. 

Arbela,  B.C.  331.  The  Persians  defeated  by  the  Macedonians 
and  Greeks  under  Alexander  the  Great.  End  of  the  Persian 
empire. 

Syracuse,  B.C.  414.  The  Athenians  defeated  by  the  Syracu- 
sans and  their  allies,  the  Spartans,  under  Gylippus. 

Marathon,  B.C.  490.  The  Athenians,  under  Miltiades,  de- 
feated the  Persians  under  Datis.  Free  government  preserved. 

Winfeld-Lippe,  A.D.  9.  Teutonic  independence  established 
by  the  defeat  of  the  Roman  legions  under  Varus  at  the  hands  of 
the  Germans  under  Arminius  (Hermann). 

Chalons,  A.D.  451.  The  Huns,  under  Attila,  called  the 

178 


DECISIVE  BATTLES  OF  IIISTORT, 


“ Scourge  of  God,”  defeated  by  the  confederate  armies  of 
Romans  and  Visigoths. 

Tours,  A.D.  732.  The  Saracens  defeated  by  Charles  Martel 
and  Christendom  rescued  from  Islam. 

Hastings,  A.D.  1066.  Harold,  commanding  the  English  army, 
defeated  by  William  the  Conqueror,  and  a new  regime  established 
in  England  by  the  Normans. 

Siege  of  Orleans,  A.D.  1429.  The  English  defeated  by  the 
French  under  Joan  of  Arc. 

Defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  A.D.  1588.  England  saved 
from  Spanish  invasion. 

Lutzen,  A.D  1632.  Decided  the  religious  liberties  of  Germany 
Gustavus  Adolphus  killed. 

Blenheim,  A.D.  1704.  The  French  and  Bavarians,  undei 
Marshal  Tallard,  defeated  by  the  English  and  their  allies,  undei 
Marlborough. 

Pultowa,  A.D.  1709.  Charles  XII.,  of  Sweden,  defeated  bj 
the  Russians  under  Peter  the  Great. 

Saratoga,  A.D.  1777.  Critical  battle  of  the  American  War  ol 
Independence.  The  English  defeated  by  the  Americans  undei 
Gen.  Gates. 

Valmy,  A.D.  1792.  An  invading  army  of  Prussians,  Aus 
trians  and  Hessians,  under  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  defeated  bj 
the  French  under  Kellermann.  The  first  success  of  the  Republh 
against  foreigners. 

Trafalgar.  On  the  21st  of  October,  A.D.  1805,  the  great  naval 
battle  of  Trafalgar  was  fought.  The  English  defeated  the  French 
and  destroyed  Napoleon’s  hopes  to  successfully  invade  England. 

Waterloo,  A.D.  1815.  The  French,  under  Napoleon,  defeated 
by  the  allied  armies  of  Russia,  Austria,  Prussia  and  England, 
under  Wellington. 

Siege  of  Sebastopol,  A.D.  1854-5.  The  Russians  succumbed 
to  the  beleaguering  armies  of  England,  France  and  Turkey,  and 
the  result  was  delay  in  the  expansion  of  the  Russian  Empire. 

Gettysburg,  July,_A.D.  1863.  The  deciding  battle  of  the  war 
for  the  Union.  The  Confederates  under  Gen.  Lee  defeated  by 
the  Union  forces  under  Meade. 

Sedan,  A.D.  1870.  The  decisive  battle  of  the  Franco-German 
war. 

Slavery  and  Serfdom* 

Some  of  the  wealthy  Romans  had  as  many  as  10,000  slaves. 
The  minimum  price  fixed  by  the  law  of  Rome  was  $80,  but  after 
great  victories  they  could  sometimes  be  bought  for  a few  shillings 
on  the  field  of  battle.  The  day’s  wages  of  a Roman  gardener 
were  about  16  cents,  and  his  value  about  $300,  while  a black- 

179 


SLA  VERT  AND  SERFDOM, 

timiih  was  valued  at  about  $700,  a cook  at  $2,000,  an  actress  at 
$4,000,  and  a physician  at  $11,000. 

The  number  of  slaves  emancipated  in  the  British  Colonies  in 
1834  was  780,993,  the  indemnity  aggregating,  #in  round  figures, 
$100,000,000.  In  Brazil,  in  1876,  there  were  1,510,800  slaves,  15 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  population.  These  were  held  by  41,000 
owners,  averaging  37  to  each  owner.  In  1882  the  number  of 
slaves  was  1,300,000.  Owing  to  the  gradual  abolition  of  slavery 
in  Brazil  by  law  it  is  expected  that  it  will  be  entirely  obsolete  in 
1900. 

Slavery  in  tlie  United  States* 


Year. 

Number. 

Year. 

Number. 

1790 

697,900 

1830 

2,009,030 

1800 

893,040 

1840 

2,487,500 

1810 

1,191,400 

1850 

3,204,300 

1820 

1,538,100 

1860 

3,979,700 

Serfdom  in  RLussia* 


There  were  47,932,000  serfs  in  Russia  in  1861,  as  follows  ; 
Crown  serfs,  22,851,000;  appanage,  3,326,000;  held  by  nobles, 
21,755,000.  The  cost  of  redemption  was,  in  round  numbers, 
about  $325,000,000,  as  follows  : 


Mortgages  remitted  $152,000,000 

Government  scrip 101,000,000 

Paid  by  serfs  52,000,000 

Balance  due  20,000,000 


The  indemnity  to  the  nobles  was  $15  per  serf.  The  lands  are 
mortgaged  to  the  state  till  1912.  The  lands  ceded  to  Crown 
serfs  are  mortgaged  only  till  1901.  The  item  of  “ mortgages 
remitted  ” is  the  amount  due  by  nobles  to  the  Imperial  Bank 
and  canceled. 

Austrian  Servitude  (1840). 


Value. 

Labor  (two  days  per  week)  $175,000,000 

Tithe  of  crops,  etc 60,000,000 

Male  tribute,  timber 7,000,000 

Female  tribute,  spun  wool  9,000,000 

Fowl,  eggs,  butter 5,000,000 


Total $256,000,000 


There  were  7.000,000  serfs,  whose  tribute  averaged  more  than 
$3^  per  head,  which  was,  in  fact,  the  rent  of  their  farms.  Some 
Bohemian  nobles  had  as  many  as  10,000  serfs.  The  redemption 
was  effected  by  giving  the  nobles  5 per  cent.  Government  scrip, 
and  land  then  rose  50  per  cent,  in  value. 

180 


Oerman  {Serfs. 


In  1848  the  state  took  60,000,000  acres  from  the  nobles,  leaving 
them  still  25,000,000  acres,  and  gave  the  former  among  the  serfs. 
Indemnity  as  follows:  i.  Government  scrip,  $900  for  each  serf 
family,  to  nobleman.  2.  Land  tax,  $15  per  annum,  transferred 
to  peasant.  3.  Interest,  $35  per  annum  for  47  years,  to  be  paid 
by  peasant  to  the  state,  being  4 per  cent,  on  cost  of  redemption. 

Famofis  Oiants  aud  Dwarfs. 

The  most  noted  giants  of  ancient  and  modern  times  are  as 
follows: 


Name.  .Place. 

Goliath Palestine 

Galbara  Rome 

John  Middleton England 

Frederick’s  Swede..  . Sweden 

Cujanus Finland 

Gilly Tyrol  . 

Patrick  Cotter  Cork  . . 

Chang  Gow Pekin  . 


Height,  Feet.  Period. 

11.0  B.C.  1063. 

9.9  Claudius  Caesar. 

9.3  A.D.  1578. 

8.4  

7.9  

8.1  

8.7  1806. 

7.8  1880. 


Many  of  the  great  men  of  history  have  been  rather  small  in 
stature.  Napoleon  was  only  about  5 ft.  4 in.,  Washington  was 
5 ft.  7 in.  One  of  the  greatest  of  American  statesmen,  Alexander 
H.  Stephens,  never  excelled  115  pounds  in  weight,  and  in  his  old 
age  his  weight  was  less  than  100  pounds. 

The  more  notable  human  mites  are  named  below: 


Name.  Height,  inches.  Date  of  Birth.  Place  of  Birth. 

Count  Borowlaski 39  1739  Warsaw. 

TomThumb(Chas.  S.  Stratton)  31  1837  New  York. 

Mrs.  Tom  Thumb  32  1842 

Che-Mah  25  1838  China. 

Lucia  Zarate 20  1863  Mexico. 

General  Mite 21  1864  New  York. 


l^Tictions  in  Ireland. 

The  total  number  of  families  evicted  in  Ireland  for  33  years  is 
482,000  as  below: 


Years.  Evicted.  Re-admitted.  Net  Evictions. 

1849-51 263,000  73,000  190,000 

1852-60  110,000  28,000  82,000 

1861-70 47,000  8,000  39,000 

1871-80 41,000  6,000  35,000 

1881-82 21,000  4,000  17,000 


Total  482,000  119,000  363,000 


The  number  of  persons  actually  evicted  was  oyer  two  millions 
(say  70,000  per  annum). 


181 


Oreat  Klnancial  Panics. 

The  most  remarkable  crises  since  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century  have  been  as  follows: 

1814.  England,  240  banks  suspended. 

1825.  Manchester,  failures  2 millions. 

1831.  Calcutta,  failures, 15  millions. 

1837.  United  States,  “Wild-cat”  crisis;  all  banks  closed. 

1839.  Bank  of  England  saved  by  Bank  of  France.  Severe  also 
in  France,  where  93  companies  failed  for  6 millions. 

1844.  England.  State  loans  to  merchants.  Bank  of  England 
reformed. 

1847.  England,  failures  20  millions;  discount  13  per  cent. 

1857.  United  States,  7,200  houses  failed  for  iii  millions. 

1866.  London,  Overend-Gurney  crisis;  failures  exceeded  100 
millions. 

1869.  Black  Friday  in  New  York  (Wall  street),  September  24. 

Hxcessivc  Heat  In  tlie  Past. 

In  1303  and  1304  the  Rhine,  Loire  and  Seine  ran  dry.  The 
heat  in  several  French  provinces  during  the  summer  of  1705  was 
equal  to  that  of  a glass  furnace.  Meat  could  be  cooked  by 
merely  exposing  it  to  the  sun.  Not  a soul  dare  venture  out  be- 
tween noon  and  4 p.  m,  In  1718  many  shops  had  to  close.  The 
theaters  never  opened  their  doors  for  three  months.  Not  a drop 
of  water  fell  during  six  months.  In  1773  the  thermometer  rose 
to  1 18  degrees.  In  1778  the  heat  of  Bologna  was  so  great  that  a 
great  number  of  people  were  stifled.  There  was  not  sufficient  air 
for  the  breath,  and  people  had  to  take  refuge  under  the  ground. 
In  July,  1793,  the  heat  again  became  intolerable.  Vegetables 
were  burned  up,  and  fruit  dried  on  the  trees.  The  furniture  and 
wood-work  in  dwelling-houses  cracked  and  split  up;  meat  went 
bad  in  an  hour. 

Summer  Heat  In  Various  Countries. 

The  following  figures  show  the  extreme  summer  heat  in  the 
various  countries  of  the  world  : Bengal  and  the  African  desert, 
150°  Fahrenheit;  Senegal  and  Guadaloupe,  130°;  Persia,  125®; 
Calcutta  and  Central  America,  120^;  Afghanistan  and  the  Ara- 
bian desert,  no®;  Cape  of  Good  . Hope  and  Utah,  105®;  Greece, 
104®;  Arabia,  103®;  Montreal,  103®;  New  York,  102®;  Spain, 
India,  China,  Jamaica,  100®;  Sierra  Leone,  94®;  France,  Den- 
mark, St.  Petersburg,  Shanghai,  the  Burman  Empire,  Buenos 
Ayres,  and  the  Sandwich  Islands,  90®;  Great  Britain,  Siam,  and 
Peru,  85®;  Portugal,  Pekin  and  Natal,  80®;  Siberia,  77®;  Aus- 
tralia and  Scotland,  75®;  Italy,  Venezuela  and  Madeira,  73®; 
Prussia  and  New  Zealand,  70®;  Switzerland  and  Hungary,  66®; 
Bavaria,  Sweden,  Tasmania  and  Moscow,  65®;  Patagonia  and 
the  Falkland  Isles,  55®;  Iceland,  45®;  Nova  Zembla,  34®. 

182* 


Severest  Cold  on  Record. 

1234.  Mediterranean  frozen  ; traffic  with  carts. 

1420.  Bosphorus  frozen. 

1468.  Wine  at  Antwerp  sold  in  blocks. 

1658.  Swedish  artillery  crossed  the  Sound. 

1766.  Snow  knee-deep  at  Naples. 

1789.  Fahrenheit  thermometer  marked  23^  below  zero  at  Frank- 
fort, and  36®  below  at  Basle. 

1809.  Moscow,  48°  below  zero,  greatest  cold  recorded  there  ; 
mercury  frozen. 

1829.  Jakoutsk,  Siberia,  73O  below  zero  on  the  25th  of  January  ; 
greatest  cold  on  record. 

1846.  December  marked  25*^  below  zero  at  Rontarlier ; lowest 
ever  marked  in  France. 

1864.  January,  Fahrenheit  stood  at  zero  in  Turin  ; greatest  cold 
recorded  in  Italy. 

Captain  Parry,  in  his  Arctic  explorations,  suffered  for  some 
time  51  degrees  below  zero.  Frost  is  diminishing  in  Canada  with 
the  increase  of  population,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  Hudson’s 
Bay  was  closed,  from  i828-’37,  184  days  per  annum,  and  from 
1871-80  only  179  days  per  annum. 

Xlie  Oreat  Famines  oi  History* 

Walford  mentions  160  famines  since  the  nth  century,  namely: 
England,  57;  Ireland  34;  Scotland,  12;  France,  10;  Germany, 
II ; Italy,  etc.,  36.  The  worst  in  modern  times  have  been: 


Country.  Date.  No.  of  Victims. 

France 1770  48,000 

Ireland 1847  1,029,000 

India 1866  1,450,000 


Deaths  from  hunger  and  want  were  recorded  as  follows  in 
1879,  according  to  Mulhall:  Ireland,  3,789;  England,  312;  Lon- 
don, loi;  France,  260.  The  proportion  per  1,000  deaths  was,  re- 
spectively, 37.6,  .6,  1.2,  .3. 

Remarkable  Plas:ues  of  Hodlerii  Ximes. 


Date. 

Place. 

Deaths. 

Weeks. 

Deaths  per  Week. 

1656.. 

. .Naples 

. . .380,000 

28 

10,400 

1665.. 

. . London 

...  68,800 

33 

2,100 

1720.. 

. . Marseilles 

...  39,100 

36 

1,100 

1771.. 

. . Moscow  

...  87,800 

32 

2,700 

1778.. 

. .Constantinople  . . . 

...170,000 

18 

9,500 

1798.. 

..Cairo  

...  88,000 

25 

3,500 

1812. . 

. .Constantinople  . . . 

. . . 144,000 

13 

11,100 

1834.. 

, .^Cairo  

...  57,000 

18 

3,200 

1835. . 

. . Alexandria 

...  14,900 

17 

900 

1871.. 

. . Buenos  Ayres . . . . 

...  26,300 

11 

2,400 

183 


Heisrlit  of  BloteA  CatlieilralSt  ntomimeiitSt  etc. 


Feet. 

Eiftel  Tower,  Paris 989 

Washington  Monument 555 

Pyramid,  Cheops,  Egypt.  . . .543 

Cathedral,  Cologne  511 

“ Antwerp 476 

“ Strasburg 474 

Tower,  Utrecht  464 


Steeple,  St.  Stephen’s, Vienna 460 
Pyramid,  Khafras,  Egypt.  ...456 
St.  Martin’s  Church,  Bavaria.456 
Chimney,  Port  Dundas,  Glas- 


gow   454 

St.  Peter’s,  Rome  448 

Notre  Dame,  Amiens 422 

Salisbury  Spire,  England ...  406 

Cathedral,  Florence 380 

“ Cremona 372 

“ Freiburg 367 

St.  Paul’s,  London  365 

Cathedral,  Seville  360 

Pyramid,  Sakkarah,  Egj^pt.  .356 

Cathedral,  Milan  355 

Notre  Dame,  Munich 348 

Invalides,  Paris  ...  .347 

Parliament  House,  London.  .340 
Cathedral,  Magdeburg  ...  .337 
St.  Patrick’s,  New  York. . . .328 
St.  Mark’s,  Venice  328 


Feet 

Cathedral,  Bologna 321 

“ Norwich,  Eng . . . 309 
“ Chichester,  Eng. 300 
“ Lincoln,  Eng... 300 

Capitol,  Washington  300 

St.James’Cathedral,Toronto.316 
Trinity  Church,  New  York. 283 

Cathedral,  Mexico 280 

“ Montreal  ..... .280 

Campanile  Tower,  Florence. 276 

Column,  Delhi  260 

Cathedral,  Dantzic 250 

Porcelain  Tower,  Nankin.. 248 
Custom  House,  St.  Louis.  . .240 
Canterbury  Tower,  Engl’d.235 

Notre  Dame,  Paris 232 

Chicago  Board  of  Trade. . . .230 

St.  Patrick’s,  Dublin  226 

Cathedral,  Glasgow 225 

Bunker  Hill  Monument. . . .220 

Notre  Dame,  Montreal 220 

Cathedral,  Lima  220 

“ Rheims  220 

“ Garden  City,L.  1.219 
St.  Peter  and  Paul,  Phila. . . . 210 
Washington  Mon.,  Balto. . .210 
Vendome  Column,  Paris.  . .153 


Principal  of  tlie  Public  Debt. 


1855  July  1 

...$  35,586,858 

56 

1872  July  1 .. 

$2,253,251,328  78 

1856 

(( 

31,972,537 

90 

1873 

u 

. 2,234,482,993  20 

1857 

u 

28,699,831 

85 

1874 

ii 

. 2,251,690,468  43 

1858 

u 

44,911,881 

03 

1875 

n 

. 2,232,284,531  95 

1859 

(( 

58,496,837 

88 

1876 

u 

. 2,180,395,067  15 

1860 

(( 

64,842,287 

88 

1877 

(( 

. 2,205,301,392  10 

1861 

u 

90,580,873 

72 

1878 

ii 

. 2,256,203,892  53 

1862 

ii 

. . . 524,176,412 

13 

1879 

ii 

. 2,245,495,072  04 

1863 

a 

...  1,119,772,138 

63 

1880 

ii 

. 2,120,415.370  63 

1864 

...  1,815,784,370 

57 

1881 

ii 

. 2,069,013;569  58 

1865 

u 

...  2,680,647,869 

74 

1882 

ii 

. 1,918,312,994  03 

1866 

a 

...  2,773,236,173 

69 

1883 

ii 

. 1,884,171,728  07 

1867 

a 

...  2,678,126,103 

87 

1884 

ii 

. 1,830,528,923  57 

1868 

(( 

...  2,611,687,851 

19 

1885 

ii 

. 1,876,424,275  14 

1869 

‘‘ 

...  2,588,452,213 

94 

1886 

“ 

. 1,756,445,205  78 

1870 

(( 

...  2,480,672,427 

81 

1887  Dec.L. . 

. 1,664,461,536  38 

1871 

. . . 2,353,211,332 

32 

1888 

44 

. 1,680,917,706  23 

184 

1890  Dec.  1 

...1.547 

,296,426  00 

Reliiriou  in  America* 


Churches. 

Ministers. 

Communi- 

cants. 

Adventists 

1,344 

775 

91,769 

Baptists 

37,156 

26,545 

3,336,553 

387,619 

Congregationalists 

3,936 

8,723 

Friends 

392 

200 

96,000 

German  Evangelical  Church 

550 

430 

80,000 

Lutherans 

6,130 

3,429 

785,987 

Methodists 

41,271 

24,485 

3,943,875 

Mennonites 

500 

450 

80,000 

Moravians 

84 

70 

9,928 

New  Jerusalem 

87 

92 

3,994 

966,437 

Presbvterians  

11,783 

8,834 

Protestant  Episcopal 

3,109 

3,664 

351,699 

Reformed  

1,942 

1,320 

243,825 

Roman  Catholics 

Schwendfeldians 

6,241 

6,546 

6,832,954 

700 

Unitarians 

362 

434 

20,000 

Universalists 

719 

713 

36,238 

Total  in  United  States 

115,610 

81,717 

17,267,878 

Indian  Country* 

The  entire  extent  of  territory"  now  in  a state  of  reservation 
for  Indian  purposes,  including  all  portions  of  the  Indian  Terri- 
tory, whether  in  fact  occupied  or  unoccupied  by  Indians,  is  112,- 
413,440  acres,  being  equivalent  to  an  average  of  456  acres  for 
each  Indian,  computed  on  the  last  reported  number  of  the  total 
population,  including  those  estimated  as  outside  the  reservations. 
Of  this  area  about  81,020,129  acres  are  within  the  scope  of  the 
general  allotment  law  of  1887,  and  afford  an  average  for  the 
population  residing  upon  such  lands,  amounting  to  173,985,  of 
about  465  acres  to  each.  It  will  be  seen  that,  by  the  execution 
of  the  general  allotment  law  and  breaking  up  of  the  reservations, 
a wide  area  of  the  public  domain  will  be  opened  to  settlement. 

The  Cherokees,  Creeks,  Choctaws,  Chickasaws,  and  Semi- 
noles,  constituting  the  five  civilized  tribes;  the  Osages,  Miamis, 
Peorias,  and  Sacs  and  Foxes  of  the  Indian  territory,  and  the 
Seneca  nation  in  New  York  are  excepted  from  the  provisions  of 
the  allotment  act.  The  territorj^  occupied  by  them  embraces 
21,969,695  acres,  not  counting  therewith  the  6,024,239  acres  of 
the  Cherokee  outlet,  the  1,887,801  acres  known  as  Oklahoma, 
and  the  1,511,576  acres  lying  in  the  Indian  territory  south  of  the 
north  fork  of  the  Red  river.  The  number  of  these  excepted 
Indians  is  shown  by  the  reports  to  be  72,110  in  all. 


]91oiiopoly. 

The  following  is  a table  of  the  leading  alien  holders  of  lands 
in  the  United  States,  with  amount  of  holdings  in  acres  : 


An  English  syndicate,  No.  3,  in  Texas 3,000,000 

The  Holland  Land  Co.,  New  Mexico 4,500,000 

Sir  Edw.  Reid  and  a syndicate,  Florida 2,000,000 

English  syndicate  in  Mississippi 1,800,000 

Marquis  of  Tweedale 1,750,000 

Phillips,  Marshall  & Co.,  London  1,300,000 

German- American  syndicate,  London 750,000 

Bryan  H.  Evans,  of  London 700,000 

Duke  of  Sutherland 425,000 

British  Land  Company  in  Kansas 320,000 

Wm.  Wharley,  M.  P.,  Peterboro,  Eng  310,000 

Missouri  Land  Co.,  Edinburgh,  Scotland. 300,000 

Robert  Tennent,  of  London 230,000 

Dundee  Land  Co.,  Scotland 247,000 

Lord  Dunmore 120,000 

Benjamin  Neugas,  Liverpool 100,000 

Lord  Houghton  in  Florida 60,000 

Lord  Dunraven  in  Colorado 60,000 

English  Land  Company  in  Florida  50,000 

English  Land  Company  in  Arkansas  50,000 

Albert  Peel,  M.  P.,  Leicestershire,  Eng  lO.OCO 

Sir  J.  L.  Kay,  Yorkshire,  Eng 5,000 

Alexander  Grant,  of  London,  in  Kans  35,000 

English  syndicate,  Wisconsin ..  110,000 

M.  Ellerhauser,  of  Halifax,  in  W.  Va 600,000 

A Scotch  syndicate  in  Florida  500,000 

A.  Boysen,  Danish  consul  in  Milwaukee 50,000 

Missouri  Land  Company,  of  Edinburgh 165,000 

Total .20,647,000 


To  these  syndicate  holdings  should  be  added  the  following: 
The  Arkansas  Valley  Company  in  Colorado, a foreign  corporation, 
whose  inclosures  embrace  upward  of  1,000,000  acres;  the  Prairie 
Cattle  Company  (Scotch)  in  Colorado,  upwards  of  1,000,000; 
H.  H.  Metcalf,  River  Bend,  Col.,  200,000;  John  W.  Powers, 
Colorado,  200,000;  McDaniel  & Davis,  Colorado,  75,000;  Routch- 
ler  & Lamb,  Colorado,  40,000;  J.  W.  Frank,  Colorado,  40,000; 
Garnett  & Langford,  Colorado,  30,000;  E.  C.  Tane,  Colorado, 
50,000;  Leivesy  Brothers,  Colorado,  150,000;  Vrooman  & McFife, 
Colorado,  50,000;  Beatty  Brothers,  Colorado,  40,000;  Chick, 
Brown  & Co.,  Colorado,  30,000;  Reynolds  Cattle  Company, 
Colorado,  50,000;  several  other  cases  in  Colorado,  embracing 
from  10,000  to  30,000;  Coe  & Carter,  Nebraska,  fifty  miles  of 
fence;  ].  W.  Wilson,  Nebraska,  forty  miles;  J.  W.  Bdster,  twenty 
miles;  William  Humphrey,  Nevada,  thirty  miles;  Nelson  & Son, 
Nevada,  twenty-two  miles;  Kennebec  Ranch,  Nebraska,  from 
20^000  to  50,000  acres.  186 


Xlie  American  Itidian* 

The  total  Indian  population  of  the  United  States  in  1887, 
exclusive  of  Alaska,  was  247,761. 

The  Indian  reservations  in  1886  amounted  to  135,978,345  acres, 
or  212,466  square  miles  approximately. 

The  popular  idea  that  there  was  originally  a large  Indian 
population  in  the  territory  now  covered  by  the  United  States, 
and  that  the  numbers  have  decreased  with  each  succeeding  gene- 
ration, as  it  came  in  contact  with  the  fire-arms  and  fire-water  of 
the  white  man’s  civilization,  is  probably  erroneous.  There  are 
no  statistics  available,  but  careful  observation  and  comparison 
has  induced  such  students  of  Indian  history  as  Mr.  J.  P.  Dunn, 
Jr.,  to  fix  the  Indian  population  of  our  present  Territory,  at  the 
time  of  European  colonization,  at  530,000  approximately,  and 
Mr.  Elbridge  S.  Brooks,  the  latest  writer  upon  the  Indians, 
materially  modifies  those  figures,  expressing  the  opinion  that  in 
1600  there  were  not  over  half  a million  of  Indians  between  the 
shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and,  in 
fact,  that  the  Indian  population  of  today  is  substantially  the 
same  in  volume  that  it  was  when  Columbus  discovered  America, 
or  Leif  Ericson  either. 

Illiteracy. 

The  1880  census  enumerates  36,761,607  persons  of  ten  years  of 
age  and  upward.  Of  this  number  4,923,  451,  or  13.4  per  cent.,  are 
returned  as  unable  to  read,  and  6,239,958,  or  17  per  cent.,  as 
unable  to  write.  The  following  States  show  over  40  per  cent, 
of  their  population  as  unable  to  write:  Alabama,  60;  Florida,  43; 
Georgia,  50;  Louisiana,  49;  Mississippi,  50;  New  Mexico,  65; 
North  Carolina,  48;  South  Carolina,  55;  and  Virginia,  41,  and 
the  following  States  with  less  than  5 per  cent,  unable  to  read: 
Connecticut,  4;  Dakota,  3;  Illinois,  4;  Indiana,  5;  Iowa,  2; 
Kansas,  4;  Maine,  4;  Michigan,  4;  Minnesota,  4;  Montana,  5; 
Nebraska,  New  Hampshire,  4;  New  Jersey,  5;  New  York, 
4;  Ohio,  4;  Oregon,  4;  Pennsylvania,  55  Utah,  5;  Virginia,  5,  and 
Wisconsin,  4. 


Ayerag^e  of  Import  Duties  in  Various  Countries. 


Ratio  to 
Imports. 
Per  Cent. 

5% 
6K 
6 " 


United  Kingdom.. 

France 

Germany 

Russia 18 

Austria 5 

Italy n 

Spain 24 

Portugal 26 

Holland 1 


187 


Belgium 

Denmark 

Sweden  and  Norway. 

Europe 

United  States 

Canada 

Australia ..... 

Brazil. ...  , , . .... 

Argentine  Republic. . 


Ratio  U 
Imports 
Per  Cent 

9 

12 

28 

15 

18 

44 

37 


Ors^ani^eil  I^atior  in  tlie  Unltedl  States* 

The  first  strike  in  this  country  occurred  in  New  York  City  in 
1803,  when  a number  of  sailors  struck  for  an  advance  of  wages. 

1806.  The  tailors  this  year  established  the  first  organization  in 
the  United  States,  in  the  present  form  of  a trades  union. 

1819.  The  hatters  organized  a union  of  their  craft. 

1825-30.  The  Columbia  Charitable  Association  of  Shipwrights 
and  Caulkers  was  organized. 

1825.  As  early  as  this  year  the  questions  of  shorter  hours  of 
work,  better  wages  and  protection  of  operatives  in  factories  were 
being  agitated,  and  during  the  years  that  immediately  followed, 
social  unions  of  different  crafts  were  springing  up  in  cities  and 
manufacturing  centers. 

1828.  The  Workingmen’s  Party,  a local  political  organization 
in  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia  and  other  cities,  appeared. 

1829.  At  the  State  election  in  New  York  a workingmen’s 
ticket  was  put  in  the  field,  and  elected  one  candidate  to  the 
Legislature — Ebenezer  Ford,  of  New  York. 

1831.  First  local  unions  of  printers. 

1831.  The  New  England  Association  of  Farmers,  Mechanics 
and  Workingmen  formed. 

1832.  Ten-hour  movement  among  the  shipwrights  and  caulk- 
ers throughout  New  England  cities  was  followed  by  strikes, 
which  proved  unsuccessful. 

1834.  A mechanics’  convention  met  at  Utica,  N.  Y.,  and  pro- 
tested against  convict  labor. 

1835.  From  this  year  onward  strikes  occurred  in  the  different 
trades  from  time  to  time,  with  varying  results. 

1840.  About  this  time  many  trades  were  organized,  and  some 
were  enrolled  in  Labor  Reform  associations. 

1840.  President  Van  Buren  established  the  ten-hour  system 
for  all  employes  of  the  Government  in  the  Navy  Yards. 

1844-45.  First  effort  of  co-operation  in  connection  with  the 
labor  movement  originated  in  Boston. 

1845.  The  New  England  Workingmen’s  Association  was  or- 
ganized in  Boston. 

1845,  October  12.  The  first  Industrial  Congress  of  the  United 
States  convened  in  New  York. 

1847.  New  Hampshire  passed  a law  making  ten  hours  a legal 
day’s  work. 

1850.  The  labor  agitation  at  this  period  was  principally 
directed  to  a reduction  in  hours  of  work  by  legal  enactment.  It 
entered  into  politics  and  many  candidates  were  run  on  that 
issue. 

1850-60.  National  and  international  trades  unions  were  organ- 
ized, granting  charters  to  local  bodies  and  organizing  new 
branches,  from  Maine  to  California. 

1861-65.  The  eight-hour  movement  obtained  great  impetus 
during  the  war. 


II  IS  TORT  OF  ORGANIZED  LABOR. 


1866.  There  was  a revival  of  the  labor  movement,  and  many 
new  organizations  were  formed. 

1S64.  The  Cigarmakers’  International  Union  was  formed. 

1866.  An  eight-hour  bill  for  the  benefit  of  Government  em- 
ployes was  introduced  in  Congress,  and  finally  became  a law  in 
1868  by  the  signature  of  President  Johnson. 

1866.  First  National  Labor  Congress  met  at  Baltimore,  August 
20.  This  body  met  annually  in  ditferent  cities  for  several  years. 

1869.  The  Knights  of  Labor  were  organized  in  Philadelphia. 

The  labor  movement  from  1870  to  the  present  time  has  been  a 
continuous  growth  in  the  number  of  trades  unions  and  increase 
in  their  membership,  attended  by  strikes,  lock-outs  and  settle- 
ments by  arbitration,  the  agitation  for  labor  legislation  and 
efforts  at  political  party  organization.  Congress  created  a 
National  Bureau  of  Labor  in  1884. 

Most  of  the  trades  unions  organizations  in  the  United  States 
were  represented  at  a convention  held  at  Columbus,  O.,  in 
December,  1886,  when  a national  organization  was  formed,  a. 
constitution  adopted  and  the  title  taken  of  The  American 
Federation  of  Labor.  This  body  and  the  Order  of  Knights  of 
Labor  of  America  (which  is  a secret  order)  are  the  two  principal 
national  labor  organizations  of  the  United  States. 


The  total  number  of  newspapers  published  in  the  world  at 
present  is  estimated  at  about  40,000,  distributed  as  follows; 
United  States,  15,000;  Germany,  5,500;  Great  Britain,  5,000, 
France,  4,092;  Japan,  2,000;  Italy,  1,400;  Austria-Hungary, 
1,200;  Asia,  exclusive  of  Japan,  1,000;  Spain,  850;  Russia,  800; 
Australia,  700;  Greece,  600;  Switzerland,  450;  H Hand,  300; 
Belgium,  300;  all  others,  1,000.  Of  these  about  half  are  printed 
in  the  English  language. 

Coal  in  the  United  States. — This  country  has  an  area 
of  between  300,000  and  400,000  square  miles  of  known  coal  fields, 
from  which  i million  tons  is  mined  yearly — enough  to  belt  the 
earth  at  the  equator  with  a ring  five  and  a half  feet  thick  by  five 
and  a half  feet  wide.  The  quantity  “in  sight”  is  estimated  to  be 
sufficient  to  supply  the  whole  world  for  a period  of  fifteen 
hundred  to  two  thousand  years. 

Roman  money  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  reduced  to 
English  and  American  standard  : 


£ s.  d.  far.  $ cts. 

Amite  0 0 0 0 75  0 00.354 

A farthing,  about  0 0 0 1 50  0 00  687 

A penny,  or  denarius 0 0 7 2.  0 13  75 

A pound,  or  mina 3 2 0 0.  13  75. 


189 


PARLIAMENTARY  LAW  AT  A GLANCE. 


List  of  Motions  Arranged  According  to  their  Purpose  and  Effect. 

[Letters  refer  to  rules  below.] 

Modify Uw  or  amending. 

8.  To  amend  or  to  substitute,  or  to  divide  the  question  ' * K 

To  refer  to  committee. 

7.  To  commit  (or  recommit)  - 
Deferring  Action. 

6.  To  postpone  to  a fixed  time  - *•  * « - - - . 

4.  To  lay  on  the  table  - 
Suppressing  or  extending  dehate. 

5.  For  the  previous  question  - --  --  -AE 

To  limit,  or  close,  debate A 

To  extend  lirnits  of  debate  - 

Suppressing  the  question. 

Objection  to  consideration  of  question  - - A H M 

9.  To  postpone  indefinitely 

4.  To  fay  upon  the  table AE 

To  bring  up  a question  the  second  time. 

S debatable  question  - - - D E F 

To  reconsider  j ^ndebatabfe  question  - - A E F 

Concerning  Orders.,  Rules.,  etc. 

3.  For  the  orders  of  the  day AEH 

To  make  subject  a special  order 

To  amend  the  rules  - --  --  --  -- 
To  suspend  the  rules  - --  --  -AEF 
To  take  up  a question  out  of  its  proper  order  - - - A 

To  take  from  the  table  -------AE 

Questions  touching  priority  of  business  - - - - - 

"jpuestions  of  privilege. 

Asking  leave  to  continue  speaking  after  indecorum  - - A 

Appeal  from  chair’s  decision  touching  indecorum  A E H L 

Appeal  from  chair’s  decision  generally  - - - E H L 

Question  upon  reading  of  papers  - AE 

Withdrawal  of  a motion  - --  --  --  AE 

Closing  a meeting. 

2.  To  adjourn  (in  committees,  to  rise),  or  to  take  a 1 A F F 

recess,  without  limitation  ----("  ^ 

I.  To  fix  the  time  to  which  to  adjourn  ------  B 

Order  of  Precedence. — The  motions  above  numbered  1 to  9 take  pre- 
cedence over  all  others  in  the  order  given.,  and  any  one  of  them.,  except  to  amend 
or  substitute.,  is  in  order  while  a motion  of  a tower  rank  is  pending. 

Rule  A.  Undebatable,  but  remarks  may  be  tacitly  allowed. 

Rule  B.  Undebatable  if  another  question  is  before  the  assembly. 

Rule  C.  Limited  debate  allowed  on  propriety  of  postponement  only. 

Rule  D.  Opens  the  main  question  to  debate.  Motions  not  so  marked  do 
not  allow  of  reference  to  main  question. 

Rule  E.  Cannot  be  amended.  Motion  to  adjourn  can  be  amended  when 
there  is  no  other  business  before  the  house. 

Rule  F.  Cannot  be  reconsidered. 

Rule  G.  An  affirmative  vote  cannot  be  reconsidered. 

Rule  H.  In  order  when  another  has  the  floor. 

Rule  I.  A motion  to  reconsider  may  be  moved  and  entered  when  another 
has  the  floor,  but  the  business  then  before  the  house  may  not 
be  set  aside.  This  motion  can  only  be  entertained  when  made 
by  one  who  voted  originally  with  the  prevailing  side.  When 
called  up  it  takes  precedence  of  all  others  which  may  come  up, 
excepting  only  motions  relating  to  adjournment. 

Rule  K.  A motion  to  amend  an  amendment  cannot  be  amended. 

190 


PARLIAMENTART  LAU'. 


Rule  L.  When  an  appeal  from  the  chair’s  decision  results  in  a tie  vote,  the 
chair  is  sustained. 

Rule  M.  Requires  a two-thirds  vote  unless  special  rules  have  been  enacted. 
Rule  N.  Does  not  require  to  be  seconded. 

GENERAL  RULES. 

No  motion  is  open  for  discussion  until  it  has  been  stated  by  the  chair. 

The  maker  of  a motion  cannot  modify  it  or  withdraw  it  after  it  has 
been  stated  by  the  chair,  except  by  general  consent. 

Only  one  reconsideration  of  a question  is  permitted. 

A motion  to  adjourn,  to  lay  on  the  table,  or  to  take  from  the  table,  can- 
not be  renewed  unless  some  other  motion  has  been  made  in  the  interval. 

On  motion  to  strike  out  the  words,  “Shall  the  words  stand  part  of  the 
motion?”  unless  a majority  sustains  the  words,  they  are  struck  out. 

On  motion  for  previous  question,  the  form  to  be  observed  is,  “Shall  the 
main  question  be  now  put?”  This,  if  carried,  ends  debate. 

On  an  appeal  from  the  chair’s  decision,  “Shall  the  decision  be  sustained 
as  the  ruling  of  the  house?”  The  chair  is  generally  sustained. 

On  motion  for  orders  of  the  day,  “Will  the  house  now  proceed  to  the 
orders  of  the  day?”  This,  if  carried,  supersedes  intervening  motions. 

When  an  objection  is  raised  to  considering  questions,  “Shall  the  ques- 
tion be  considered?”  objections  may  be  made  by  any  member  before  debate 
has  commenced,  but  not  subsequently* 


Letter  Combinations. — When  King  Stanislaus  of  Poland, 

then  a young  man,  came  back  from  a journey,  the  whole  Lescinskian  House 
gathered  together  at  Lissa  to  receive  him.  The  schoolmaster,  Jablowsky,  prepared 
a festival  in  commemoration  of  the  event,  and  had  it  end  with  a ballet  performed  by 
thirteen  students,  dressed  as  cavaliers.  Each  had  a shield,  upon  which  one  of  the 
letters  of  the  words  “ Domus  Lescinia**  (The  Lescinskian  House)  was  written  in 

gold.  After  the  first  dance,  they  stood  in  such  a manner  that  their  shields  read 

" Domus  Lescinia  after  the  second  dance,  they  changed  order,  making  it  read, 
Adts  incoiumis'*  (\5nhzxmed  art  thou  here);  after  the  third,  **  Mane  sidus  locz” 
(Continue  the  star  of  this  place);  after  the  fourth,  Sts  columna  Dei**  (Be  a pillar 
of  God);  and  finally,  “/.'  scande  solium!**  (Go!  ascend  the  throne).  Indeed, 
these  two  words  allow  of  1,556,755,200  transpositions ; yet  that  four  of  them  convey 
independent  and  appropriate  meanings  is  certainly  very  curious. 

To  Tell  Pure  Water. — The  color,  odor,  taste  and  purity 

of  water  can  be  ascertained  as  follows:  Fill  a large  bottle  made  of  colorless  glass 
with  water;  look  through  the  water  at  some  black  object.  Pour  out  some  of  the 
water  and  leave  the  bottle  half  full ; cork  the  bottle  and  place  it  for  a few  hours  in  a 
warm  place ; shake  up  the  water,  remove  the  cork,  and  critically  smell  the  air  con- 
tained in  the  bottle.  If  it  has  any  smell,  particularly  if  the  odor  is  repulsive,  the 

water  should  not  be  used  for  domestic  purposes.  By  heating  the  water  an  odor  is 

evolved  that  would  not  otherwise  appear.  Water  fresh  from  the  well  is  usually 
tasteless,  even  if  it  contains  a large  amount  of  putrescible  organic  matter.  All  water 
for  domestic  purposes  should  be  perfectly  tasteless,  and  remain  so  even  after  it  has 
been  warmed,  since  warming  often  develops  a taste  in  water  which  is  tasteless  when 
©old. 

Hand  Grenades. — Take  chloride  of  calcium,  crude,  20  parts  ; 

common  salt,  5 parts  ; and  water,  75  parts.  Mix  and  put  in  thin  bottles.  In  case  ol 
lire,  a bottle  so  thrown  that  it  will  break  in  or  very  near  the  fire  will  put  it  out.  This 
mixture  is  better  and  cheaper  than  many  of  the  high-priced  grenades  sold  for  the 
purpose  of  fire  protection. 

How  TO  Get  Rid  of  Rats. — Get  a piece  of  lead  pipe  and  use 

it  as  a funnel  to  introduce  about  ounces  of  sulphide  of  potassium  into  any  outside 
holes  tenanted  by  rats,  not  to  be  used  in  dwellings.  To  get  rid  of  mice  use  tartar 
emetic  mingled  with  any  favorite  food  ; they  will  eat,  sicken  and  take  their  leave. 

191 


Great  Fires  and  Coiiflagfrations. 

London,  Sept.  2-6,  1666. — Eightj-nine  churches,  many  public 

buildings  and  13,200  houses  destroyed;  400  streets  laid  waste;  200,000  persons  home- 
less. The  ruins  covered  436  acres. 

New  York,  Dec.  16,  1835.— 600  buildings;  loss,  $20,000,000. 

Sept.  6,  1839. — $10,000,000  worth  of  property. 

Pittsburgh,  April  10,  1845. — 1,000  buildings;  loss,  $6,000,000. 
Philadelphia,  July  9,  1850.— 350  buildings;  loss,  $1,500,000;  25 

persons  killed;  9 drowned;  120  wounded. 

St.  Louis,  May  4,  1851. — Large  portion  of  the  city  burned; 

loss,  $15,000,000. 

San  Francisco,  May  3-5,  1851. — 2,500  buildings;  loss,  $3,^00,- 

000;  many  lives  lost.  June  22,  1851. — 500  buildings;  loss,  $3,000,000. 

Santiago  (Spain),  Dec.  8,  1863. — A fire  in  the  church  of 
the  Campania,  beginning  amid  combustible  ornaments;  2,000  persons  killed, 
mostly  women. 

Charleston,  S.  C.,  Feb.  17,  1865. — Almost  totally  destroyed, 

with  large  quantities  of  naval  and  military  stores. 

Richrnond,  Va.,  April  2 and  3,  1865. — In  great  part  destroyed 

by  fire  at  time  of  Confederate  evacuation. 

Portland,  Me.,  July  4,  1866. — Almost  entirely  destroyed;  loss, 

$15,000,000. 

Chicago,  Oct.  8 and  9,  1871. — 3)^  square  miles  laid  waste; 

17,450  buildings  destroyed;  200  persons  killed;  98,500  made  homeless.  July  14, 
1874. — Another  great  fire;  loss,  $4,000,000. 

Great  forest  fires  in  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  October  8-14, 

1871. — 2,000  lives  lost. 

Boston,  Nov.  9-1 1,  1872. — 800  buildings;  loss,  $73,000,000;  15 

killed. 

Fall  River,  Mass.,  Sept.  19,  1874. — Great  factory  fires;  60  per- 
sons killed. 

St.John,  N.  B.,  June  21,  1876. — Loss,  $12,500,000. 

Brooklyn  Theater  burned,  Dec.  5,  1876. — 300  lives  lost. 

Seattle  and  Spokane,  Wash.,  1889. — About  $10,000,000  each. 

Great  Floods  and  Inundations. 

An  inundation  in  Cheshire,  England,  A.D.  353. — 3,000  per- 
sons perished. 

Glasgow,  A.D.  758. — More  than  400  families  drowned. 

Dort,  April  17,  1421. — 72  villages  submerged;  100,000  people 

drowned. 

Overflow  of  the  Severn,  A.D.  1483,  lasting  ten  days. — Men, 
women  and  children  carried  away  in  their  beds,  and  the  waters  covered  the  tops  ot 
many  mountains. 

General  inundation  in  Holland,  A.D.  1530. — By  failure  of  dikes; 

400,000  said  to  have  been  drowned. 

At  Catalonia,  A.D.  1617. — 50,000  drowned. 

Johnstown,  Pa.,  May  31,  1880.— By  the  bursting  of  a huge 

reservoir  on  the  mountains,  the  town  was  almost  entirely  destroyed,  and  about  6,000 
persons  perished.  The  water  in  its  passage  to  Johnstown  descended  about  250  feet. 
The  theoretical  velocity  due  to  this  descent  would  be  about  127  feet  per  second  or  be- 
tween 86  and  87  miles  an  hour.  According  to  the  best  accounts  from  15  to  17  minutes 
were  occupied  in  the  passage  to  Johnstown,  a distance  of  about  twelve  miles. 
Thus  the  average  velocity  could  not  have  been  far  short  of  50  miles  an  hour.  The 
impetus  of  such  a mass  of  water  was  irresistible.  As  the  flood  burst  through  the 
dam  it  cut  trees  away  as  if  they  were  stalks  of  mullein. 

192 


THE  WORLD’S  HISTORY  AT  A GLANCE. 

Compact  Diagrams  Suggesting  Dates,  Names  and  Events. 
Designed  to  Aid  the  Memory  and  for 
Ready  Reference. 


B.  C. 

FROM 

ABRAHAM  TO  ' 

CYRUS. 

ASSYRIA. 

HEBREWS. 

.-^GYPT.;  ^ 

CHALDiBA. 

96.  Abraham  born. 

1900 

1800 

BABYLONIA. 

50.  Ismi-Dagon. 

21.  Call  of  Abraham. 

''  :ic 

[gOlO  '•-v.  J k i'  l ;*  . _■ 

. a'l^ha- 

&et  iicveuted. : 

1700 

6.  Jacob  removes  in- 
to Egypt. 

kiug^ 

1600 

Seso^ti^ 

1500 

Arabians  subdue 
Chaldaea. 

71.  Moses  born. 

“v  f 

1400 

91.  Exodus  from 

51.  He^^re-ws  enter 
Canaan. 

1300 

^eth<^'  ■ ’ 

1200 

Semiramis. 

; 45.  Gi^or*  conquers 
the  Mriianites. 

50.  Nebuchadnez- 

36.  Samson  defeats 

1100 

30.  Tigleth-Pileserl. 

tl>e  Philistines. 

1000 

*"95.  Saul,  king. 
pS-  David,  king. 

15.  Solomon,  king. 

.'iHeops  ‘bu'i  I d s 

, J^Vgr^t  Pyra- 

900 

go.  C^een  of  Sheba 
, visits  Solomon. 

75.  Death  of  Solomon. 
Two  kingdoms 
formed — Judah 
and  Israel. 

Shishak^  i 

S.hishak  thvades  1 
, : Jud^u  plunders" 

, ■ .thef  ,^b^le.,  . 

75.  Sardanapalus. 

800 

70.  Assy rians  con- 
quer PhcEnicia. 

92.  Syrians  besiege  1 
Samaria.  } 

(II.) 


700 


600 


600 


47-  Nabonassar, 

28.  Shalmaneser. 

23.  Invades 

Phoenicia. 

17.  Sennacherib. 

9.  Asarhadon. 

26.  Nabopolasser. 

5.  Nebuchadnezzar 
the  Great. 


87.  Nebuchadnezzar 
invades  Phoe- 


71.  Assyrians  invade 
Israel. 

21.  The  ten  tribes  car- 
ried into  captiv- 
ity. 

10.  Sennacherib’s 
army  of  185,000 
destroyed  in  one 
night  in  Judea. 


5.  Nebuchadnezzar 
invades  Judea. 


87.  J e r u s a 1 e m d e- 
stroyed.  Jews 
led  away  into 
captivity 


55.  Belshazzar. 

38.  Cyrus  the  Mede,  king  of  Persia,  takes 
Babylon. 

36.  Jews  returned  to  Jerusalem. 

29.  Death  of  Cyrus. 


FROM  CYRUS  TO  ALEXANDER. 


400 


94.  Darius  in-^ 
vades  f 
Greece.- 
85.  Xerxes  in-> 
vades  - 

Greece.! 
79.  Persians  re-i 
treat  hom^ 
65.  Artaxcrxesf 
Battle  of  Cuy 
naxa;  Cy-' 
r u s t h el 
Yo  u n g e 1+ 
slain.  ! 


90. 

defea^^j^ 
Persian^! 
Maratho^« 
60.  BattlesiM 
Thernr.fe 
pylae 

- Salamis.  rp: 
79.  Battles  ^ 
Mycalea^i^ 
Piatsea.-  1:% 
31.  Peloponii^^ 
sian  Ty'af  " ^ 
13.  Athens 
vades 


(III.) 


300 


200 


94.  Persians  aid 
Athenians 
in  battle  of 
Cnidus 


36.  Darius  111. 
Codomanus. 


1.  Amyntas. 


kS  Philip  II. 

[38.  Defeat  of  I 
A t h e n 1“  1 
ans  and 
Thebans  I 
at  Cher-  | 
onea. 

36.  Alexander.! 


34. 


Persia  in- 
vade  d by 
Alexander. 
Battle  of 
GraniQUS. 


33.  Battle  of  Issus. 
Conquest  of  Syria. 
Conquest  of  Egypt. 
Siege  of  Tyre. 


31.  Battle  of  Arbela. 

30.  Darius  assassinated. 

28.  Alexander  invades  India. 

24.  Alexander  dies  at  Babylon. 


FROM  ALEXANDER  TO  AUGUSTUS. 


EGYPT. 

22.  Ptolemy  I. 

I.  Battle  of  Ip- 
sus. 


84.  Ptolemy 
Phila  d e 1 - 
phus. 

46.  Ptolemy 
Evergetes. 

Egy  pti  a ns 
conquer 
Syria. 

21.  Ptolemy 
Philopater. 

4 Ptolemy 
Epiphanes. 


SYRIA. 

23.  Seleucus  1. 


83.  Antioch  us 

I. 

46.  Seleucus  II. 
26.  Seleucus  III 
23  Antioch  us 
the  Great. 


MACEDON. 


88.  L y s i m a - 
chus.  King 
of  Tnrace, 
subjects 
Macedon. 

20.  Philip  V. 

II.  War  with 
Rome. 


emperor,  under  tlie 
&TH  OfTcHRIST. 


(IV.) 


100 


B.  C. 


A.  D. 


100 

200 

800 


''So.  Ptolemy  Phi 
lometer. 

45.  Ptolemy 

Physcon. 

Ptolemy  La- 
thyrus. 


82.  Thebes  de- 
stroyed. 

1^.  Ptolemy  Au- 
letus. 


I^S.  Independent. 

h<.  Antioch  us 
IV. 

"70.  Antiochus 
plundersje- 
rusalem. 

30.  Antiochus 
VII. 

33.  Antiochus 

vm. 

12.  Antio'chus 

IX. 


51.  Ptolemy  Bac- 
chus and 
Cleopatra. 

43.  Cleopatra, 


31.  Battle  of  Ac- 
tium. 

’^o.  Egypt  a Ro- 


ibo.  Antiochus 
XII. 

I65.  Antiochus 
defeated  by 
Pompey. 
Syria  subject 
to  Rome. 


99.  Second  war 
with  Rome. 


72..Third  Roman 
war. 


68.  Battle  of 
Pydna 


M a c e d o n 
conquered. 


51.  Oaul  ‘ ^ 

f8.  Civil  war*  *^'Q5C 


Inc^^  f4.  Assassination  ^ Jut 


‘ ^ ti  ^ >’ .V*'  ^ 


FROM  AUGUSTUS  TO  CHARLEMAGNE. 


70.  Destruction  of  Jerusalfemi,  ‘ - ^ 
^^^Ertiption  of  Mount.  Vesuvius,  eoyeriia^ 

p #cihicth  "persecution.  97;  Battle  of  X.yiAnl«»  - 
pestilence,  ; ^ 

^^.Cbhstantine  sole  emperor, 

J '• 


(V.) 

WESTERN  EMPIRE. 

EASTERN  EMPIRE. 

400 

Gothi  tin^r  Alaric  overrun  Italy. 

8.  Theodosius  H. 

10.  Rome  besieged  and  sacked. 

47.  Tribute  paid  to  Attila, 
King  or  the  Hons. 

Romans  leave  Briteia* 

50.  Maiciao* 

55.  Anglo*Saxons  conquer  Britoee. 

^72.  VisigoUis  conquer  Spain. 

76.  Odoacer  captures  Rome.  Bnd  of 
the  Empire.  1 

86.  Franks  in  Gaul. 

89.  Ostrogoths  in  Italy. 

600 

7.  Kingdom  of  the  Franks  founded 
by  Clovis. 

2.  Empire  ravaged  bf  the 
Persiaiit. 

52.  Ostrogoths  expelled  from  Italy. 

29.  Jnsdnian  code  poblisbed. 

96.  Lombards  overrun  Ita  'y. 

81.  Slavonians  in  Thrace. 

600 

56.  Clovis  II.  king  oi  France. 

12.  Mohammed  spreads  his 
doctrines. 

62.  Lombards  defeat  Constans  11,  in 
Italy. 

14.  Persians  ravage  Syria 
and  Palestine. 

97.  Conq  lest  of  Northern  Africa  by 
the  Saracens. 

40.  Saracens  invade  Egypt. 

73.  Siege  of  Constantinople. 

700 

II.  Saracens  invade  Spain. 

32.  Battle  of  Tours. 

Saracens  defeated  by  the  Franks 
under  Charles  Martel. 

74.  Charlemagne  conquers  the  Lom- 
bards. 

20.  Saracens  defeated  at 
Constantinople. 

30.  Iconoclasts  burn  and  de- 
stroy works  of  art. 

800 

.^4)rli&6iague  1 

II.  Bulgarians  defeat  the 
Greek  emperor. 

'(VI.) 


800 


900 


1000 


1100 


12001 


FROM  CHARLEMAGNE  TO  NAPOLEON. 


ENGLAND. 

28.  Egbert  king. 

71.  Alfred  the 
Great. 


FRANCE,  4EimfAinr;  >j  elsewhere. 


51.  Pill  age  d 
by 

Northmen. 


14,  Louis  th^  Deh 
bounaire^ 
Charles  the 


9.  Death  of 
Haroun  al 
Raschid, 
the  Caliph. 


24.  Athelstan. 


79.  Edward  the 
Martyr  as- 
sassinated. 


13.  Svenn  c o n - 
quers  Eng- 
land. 

17.  Canute  king. 

42.  Edward  the 
Confessor. 

66.  B a 1 1 1 e of 
Hastings. 

William  the 
Conqueror. 

89.  William  II. 


Henry  I. 

35.  Stephen, 

54.  The  Planta- 
genets. 
Henry  II. 

71.  Invasion  of 
Ireland. 

89.  R i c h a r d 

Coeur  de 
Lion. 

90.  John  Lack- 

land. 


15.  Magna  Char- 

ta  signed. 

16.  Henry  III. 

72.  Edward  I. 

82.  Conquest  of 

O I^C 

97.  Sir  William 
Wallace  in 
Scotland. 


12.  Rollo, 
Duke  of 
Normandy, 
87.  Hugh  Ca- 
put, King 
of  France 


70.  Russians  in- 
vade Thrace 
and  are  de- 
feated. 


65.  Turks  cap- 
ture Jeru- 
salem. 

96.  F i r s t Cru- 
sade. 

99.  C r u s a d ers 
take  Jeru- 
salem. 


25.  Venice  flour- 
ishes. 

46.  Second  Cru- 
sade. 

59.  War  of  the 
Guelphsand 
Ghibellines. 

72.  S a 1 a d i n * s 
conquest  in 
Asia. 

87.  Third  C r u - 
sade. 

94.  Fourth  Cru- 
sade. 


Fifth  Cru- 
sade. 

17.  Si  xth  Cru- 

sade. 

18.  G e n g h i s 

Kha  n,the 
Mogul, 
conqueror 
of  Asia. 

68.  Eighth  and 
last  Crusade. 


1300 


1400 


1500 


(VII.) 


ENGLAND. 

Edward  II. 

14.  Battle  of 
Bannock- 
burn. 

27.  Edward  III. 

46.  B a 1 1 1 e of 
Cressy. 

56.  B a 1 1 1 e of 
Poictiers. 

77.  Richard  II. 

99.  Henry  IV. 
of  Lv.ncas- 
ter. 


13.  H e n r y V. 
War  with 
France. 


15.  B a 1 1 1 e of 
Agincourt. 


22.  Henry  VI. 


War  of  the 
Roses. 


61.  H o u s e of 
York. 

Edward  IV. 


83.  Edward  V. 
Richard  III. 

8<.  The  Tudors. 
Henry  VII. 

~Henry  VIII. 
13.  B a 1 1 1 e of 
Flodden. 

36.  Ann  Boleyn 
beheaded. 

47.  Edward  VI. 

53.  Mary. 

58.  Elizabeth. 


FRANCE. 

14  L o u i s X. 
16,  P h i 1 i p V. 
21.  Charles  IV. 

28.  Philip  VI. 
50.  John  II. 

64.  Charles  V. 
80.  CharlesVI. 


GEKMAN 


7.  Revolt  o f 
the  Swiss. 
William 

Tell. 


15.  B a ttl  e of 
Mo  r gar- 
ten. 


49.  Charles  IV. 
of  House 
of  L u X- 
emburg. 


78.  W e n c e s- 
laus. 


22.  C h a r 1 e s 0.  Sigismund. 
VII.  ^ 


29.  Joan  of  Arc 
raises 
siege  of 
Orleans. 


51.  English  ex- 
pelled 
from 
France. 


61.  Louis  XI. 


81. Charles 
VIII. 


96.  Louis  XII. 


vasion. 

15.  Fran  c i s I. 

25.  B a 1 1 1 e of 
Pavia. 

47.  Henry  II. 

59.  Francis  II. 

60.  Hugue  not 

war. 


iLSEWHERE. 


40..  Frederick. 


93.  Max  i m i 1- 
ian  I. 


I.  Knights 
Templar 
suppressed. 

40.  Battle  of 
Tarifa  i n 
Spain  — 
Moors  de- 
feated. 


47.  Rienzi  frees 
Rome. 


^.Battle  of 
Nicopolis. 
Christian  s 
defeated. 


2.  B a 1 1 1 e of 
Angora, 
famerl  an  e 
captures 
Bajazet. 

22.  Amurath  II. 
consolid’es 
Ottoman 
Empire. 

42.  B a 1 1 1 e of 
^ Vasag. 
Turks  beat- 
en by  Hun- 
garians. 

53.  Amurath  II. 
ca  p tu  r e s 
Constanti- 
nople. 

56.  Battle  of  Bel- 
grade. 

92.  Columbus 
disc  ove  r s 
America. 


13.  English  in-  Si*7i  Ref  o r m a- 

: — tion — 

Luther.';^ 


19.  Charles  V; 
21.  Diet  of 

. Worms. ^ 
56.  Abdication 
of  Charles^ 

V.  _ f 
Ferdinai}.cb 
L 


21.  Wars  of 

Charles  V. 
in  Italy. 

53.  Ivan  IV., 

Russia. 

56.  Philip  II.  in 
Spain. 

65.  Netherlands 
revolt. 


VIIL 


1600 


1700 


ENGLAND. 

87.  M a r y of 
Scots  be- 
headed. 


88.  Spanish  Ar- 
mada. 


3.  The  Stuarts. 

James  I. 

25.  Charles  I. 

49.  C o m m on- 
wealth. 

Oliver 

Cromwpll. 

60.  Stuarts  r e- 
stored. 

Cha  r 1 e s II. 

79.  Habeas  Cor- 
pus apt;. 

85.  James  II. 

88.  William  and 
Mary. 

90.  Battle  of  the 
Boyne. 


2.  Anne, 

14.  H o u s e of 
Ha  n ove  r. 

G e o r g e I. 

27.  Ge  o r g e II. 

39.  War  with 
Spain. 

46.  Stuart  troub- 
les in  Scot- 
land. 

Battle  of 
Culloden. 

56.  War  with 
France. 

60.  George  III. 

75.  War  with 
Americ  a n 
Colonies. 


FRANCE. 

72.  Mass  acre 
St.  Bar- 
tholo- 
mew’s 
day. 

84.  Henry  III. 

89.  Henry  IV. 
of  Na- 


GERMANY. 

64.  Maxi  m i 1- 
" ian  II, 


76.  Rudolph 


8: 


10.  Louis  XIII. 


27.  S i e g e of 
Rochelle. 


43.  Louis  XIV. 


48.  W ars  of  the 
Fronde. 


72.  H o 1 1 a n d 
invaded. 


85.  E d i c t of 
Nantes 
revoked. 


15.  Louis  XV. 

45.  B a 1 1 1 e of 
Fontenoy. 

74.  Louis  XVI. 

89.  States  Gen- 

eral. 

90.  Revolution. 

93.  Louis  XVI. 
beheaded. 
Republic. 

99.  Napol  eon 
First  Con- 
sul. 


i2wMa th  i a s. 

Thirty  y’rs 
war.- 

^rFerdina  n d 

n. 

20.  B at  tie  of 
Rrague. 

^"30.  Invasion  of 
Gustavus 
Adolphus 
2 of  S we- 
1 den. 

32.  Battle  of 
Lutzen. 

37.  Ferdina  n d 
III. 

59.  Leopold  1. 


Jose ph  I. 
Charles  VI. 
Char’s  VII. 
War  of  the 
Austria  n 
succes- 
sion.,' 
H o ijy5  e 
Loraine." 
Fra  n els 
Jo^seph  n.  " 
-Leopold  n. 
Francis,.  H. 
Rhenish 
‘ ' Province^ 
' Revolt? 
War,w4  th 
, Fraiace.:-;-- 


ELSEWHERE.! 

71.  Battle  of  Le- 
panto. 


li.  Ho  Hand  a 
republic. 


52.  Dutch  A d- 
miral  Van 
Tromp. 


83.  John  Sobies- 
ki,  king  of 
Poland, 
defeats  the 
Tu  r k s at 

Vienna. 


.Peter  the 
Great, 
Russia. 


97.  Charles  XII. 
Sweden. 


War  of 
Spanish 
succession 

Battle  of 
Pultowa, 
defeat  o f 
Charles 
XII. 

Catherine  I. 
of  Russia. 

Frederick  II. 
of  Prussia. 

Capture  of 
Berlin. 

Catherine  II. 
of  Russia. 

Partition  of 
Poland. 

Prussia  en- 
larged. 


1800 


(IX.) 


ENGLAND. 

I.  Union  with 
Ireland. 


3.  War  with 
France. 


5.  B a 1 1 1 e of 
Trafalgar. 


8.  Peninsu  1 a r 
war. 


12.  War  with 
United 
States. 


15.  B a 1 1 1 e of 
Waterloo. 


FRANCE. 

4.  Napoleon 

emperor. 

5.  Battle  of 
Austerlitz. 

6.  Of  Jena. 
9.  Of  W a g- 

ram. 

12.  Rus  s i a n 
campaign. 

13.  War  with 

all  Eu- 
rope. 

14.  Allies  en- 

ter 

France. 
Napoleo  n 
sent  to 
Elba. 

15.  Napoleon 

returns. 
Battle  of 
Waterloo. 
Napoleo  n 
sent  to  St. 
Helena. 


' _ ’'■■Bar'V-.a  r'i  a,: 
’ W^St^h  a- 
. i i*  a a n d 
> Wurte  ni.-* 
es- 

tablisiTed. 

6.  Prussians  at 
^ _ ''yv  a r wildi 

an 


Pfj^Fru  s s i a:rk--$-i 
’ oecu^  '3 

ha  a n i 
'^©jffbde  ta- 
v^n 


ELSEWHERE. 

I.  Alexanderl. 
Russia. 


5.  Russia  joins 
the  coa  1 i - 
tion 
against 
France. 


12.  French  i n- 
vade  Rus- 
sia. 

Moscow 

burnt. 


15.  Holy  Alli- 
a n c e be- 
tween Rus- 
sia, Prus- 
s i a and 
Austria. 


FROM  NAPOLEON  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 


ENGLAND. 

20.  George  IV. 

30.  William  IV. 

37.  Vi  c t o r i a. 

39.  War  with 
China. 

48.  Tro  u b 1 e in 
Ireland. 

53.  Crimean 

war. 

56.  War  with 

Persia. 

57.  Indian  muti- 

ny. 

67.  War  with 
Abyssinia. 

73.  Ashantee 
war. 

78.  War  in  Af- 

ghanistan. 

79.  Zula  war. 


FRANCE. 

24.  Ch  a r 1 e s 

X. 

30.  Conque  s t 
Algiers. 

Louis 

Phillipe. 

48.  R e V o 1 u- 
tion. 

Republic. 

51.  Coup  d’e- 
tat. 

<2.  Napoleo  n 
III.  em- 
peror. 

59.  War  with 
Austria. 

Battles  of 
Ma  ge  n- 
ta  and 
Solferino. 

70.  War  with 
Prussia. 

Battle  of 
Sedan. 


. I nsui^ectL.^ 
in 

61.  Willi  am  L 


64. 


66. 


70. 


War  with 

. Denmark, 

War  w ij:_h 
Austria. 

Battle  of  Sa- 
dowa. 

Inva^on  of 
France, 

♦ German  Era -c 
pirc  re-es- 
tablished. 

Willi  am  I. 

: dm^^rpr,. 


ELSEWHERE 

27.  Greece  inde- 
pendent. 

. Hunga  r i a n 
war. 

Francis  J o- 
seph  e ra- 
pe r o r of 
Austria. 


Siege  of  Se- 
bastopol. 

A1  ex  a n d e r 
II.,  Russia. 

Victor 

Emanuel 
king  of  It- 
aly. 

Revolu  tion 
in  Spain. 

A m a d e u s 
king  of 
Spain. 

. Rome  capi- 
tal of Italy. 


ENGLAND. 

1800  8o.  Famine  in 

Ireland. 


Land 

League. 

82.  War  in 

Egypt. 

88.  Irish  home 
rule  d i s- 
cussions. 

U.  S.  Cov- 
er n m e n t 
dismiss 
Lord  Sack- 
yille,  Brit- 
ish minis- 
ter. 


FRANCE. 

70.  Surrender 
of  Napo- 
leon. 


71.  O utbreak 
of  the 
Com- 
mune. 

Paris  tak- 
en by 
storm. 

Repub  1 i c. 
Th i e r s 
president. 

73.  M acM  a- 
hon  pres- 
ident. 

79.  Jules  Gre- 
vy  presi- 
dent. 

87.  Sadi-Car  - 
not  presi- 
dent. 

89.  Boulanger 
ex  c i t e- 


GERMANY.  ELSEWHERE. 


88.  D e a t h 

WiBiam:!. 

--  Accession 
• y and,  death 
of  :R^eder^ 

William  II. 

89?  Mining 

strikes^ 


75.  Alphonso 
VII., 

Spain. 

77.  Russo- 

Turkish 


79.  H u m b e r t 
king  of 

Italy. 

81.  Alexa  n d e r 
II.  of  Rus- 
sia assassi- 
nated. 

Alexa  n d e r 

m. 


N'or/olk.  So  fare  you  well,  my  little  good  Lord  Cardinal. 
IVolsey.  So  farewell  to  the  little  good  you  bear  me. 
Farewell,  a long  farewell  to  all  my  greatness! 

This  is  the  state  of  man:  to-day  he  puts  forth 
The  tender  leaves  of  hopes,  to-morrow  blossoms, 

And  bears  his  blushing  honors  thick  upon  him: 

The  third  day  comes  a frost,  a killing  frost; 

And — when  he  thinks,  good  easy  man,  full  surely 
His  greatness  is  a ripening — nips  his  root 
And  then  he  falls  as  I do.  I have  ventured. 

Like  little  wanton  boys  that  swim  on  bladders, 

This  many  summers  in  a sea  of  glory. 

But  far  beyond  my  depth:  my  high-blown  pride 
At  length  broke  under  me,  and  now  has  left  me 
Weary  and  old  with  service,  to  the  mercy 
Of  a rude  stream  that  must  forever  hide  me. 

Vain  pomp  and  glory  of  this  world,  I hate  ye! 

Shakespeare^  Henry  F///.,  Act  ///.,  Scene 


(X.) 


AMERICA. 


discovers  Atneric*. 
4iiscovetV>i|^«t<>undlaQd; 


fr:,‘^’’'  ' ' ; ■''''*  5'^  .-VV' 

1‘allure.  T 


1733 


Settlement  at  Jamestown | Virginia. 

New  Amsterdam  settled  by  Dutch. 


Massachusetts. 


Puritans  land  at  Plymouth  Rock 

Swedes  and  Finns  settlement 

Catholic  settlement  ax  St.  Mary’s.... 

Settlements  at  Hartford  and  Windsor. ..  ^ Connecticut;. 

Roger  Williams  settles 

Elizabethtown  settled 


Delawarei^t',:^, 
Maryland. 


Rhode  Island. 


NeV  J;ersey. 


Clarendon  colony  settlement,..., 4 North  Carolina. 


Pennsylvania. 


Carteret  colony  found  old  Charleston... . South  Carolina. 

William  Penn  

Oglethorpe  founds  Savannah 

Separated  from  Massachusetts.. . ... 


New  Hampshire.  | 


1754 


1800 


(XII.) 


French  and  Indian  war. 

55.  Braddock’s  defeat. 

58.  Fort  DuQuesne  taken  by  Washington. 

65.  Colonial  Congress  at  New  York  resists  stamp  act. 

68.  General  Gates  sent  to  Boston. 

70.  Boston  massacre. 

74.  Congress  meets  in  Philadelphia. 

75.  The  Revolutionary  War  begins  with  battle  of  Lexington 
Battle  of  Bunker  Hill. 

76.  Declaration  of  Independence. 

77.  Battle  of  Princeton. 

Surrender  of  Burgoyne  at  Saratoga. 

78.  Battle  of  Monmouth. 

81.  Battle  of  Cowpens. 

Surrender  of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown. 

83.  Treaty  of  peace. 

87.  Constitution  adopted, 

88.  Constitution  ratified  by  eleven  States. 


THB  UNITED  STATES. 

89.  George  Washington  president. 

John  Adams  vice-president. 

90.  Indian  war  in  Ohio. 

91.  Vermont  admitted. 

92.  Kentucky  admitted. 

94,  Whiskey  insurrection. 

96.  Tennessee  admitted. 

qj,  John  Adams  president. 

_ !Jliomas  Jefferson  vice-president. 

.99..  Death  of  Washington. 

Washington  City,  D.  C.,  th6  capital. 

I,  Thomas  Jefferson  president. 

Aaron  Burr  vice-president. 

a.  Ohio  admitted. 


SPANISH  AND 
5RITISH  AMERICA. 


3,  Hayti  Republic, 

8.  King  of  Portugal 
goes  to  Brazil. 


1803  [ 


S 


Louisiana  purchased  from  the  French. 
War  with  Tripoli. 

5.- George  Clinton  vice-president. 

-7.  Trial  of  Aaron  Burr. 


9.  James  Madison  president, 
George  Clinton  vice-president. 


II.  Battle  of  Tippecanoe. 


12.  Louisiana  admitted. 
War  with  England. 
Invasion  of  Canada, 
Surrender  of  Mackinaw. 


13.  Battle  of  Lake  Erie. 

Com.  Per^  captures  English  fleet. 
Elbridge  Gerry  vice-president. ' 

Battle  of  the  Thames. 

14.  Battle  of  Lundy^s  Lane.  ; ^ 

English  c^ture  Washington  city  . and 

burn  public  buildings. 

Battle  of  North  Point. 

Bombardment  of  Fort  McHenry, 


15.  Battle  of  'New  Orleans. 
a6.  Indiana  admitted. 


James  Monroe  president,  ' ^ 
Daniel  Tompkins  T^,e»president. 
Mississippi  admittedfcf^  - 


18.  Illinois  admitted. 
Florida  war. 


19.  Alabama  admitted, 

Jr  Purchase  of  Florida, 


:s(Oi  Missouri  Compromise, 
Maine  admitted. 

21.  Missouri  admitted, 

23.  Monroe  docfcric^  declarednt 

24.  Visit  of  Hafayettt.' 


(XIII.) 


9.  Buenos  Ayres 
War  of  Inde- 
pendence. 

II.  Dr.  Francia  dic- 
tator of  Para- 
guay. 


15.  Brazil  made  a 
kingdom. 


16.  Buenos  Ayres 
independent. 


7.  Chili, after  a hard 
struggle,  inde- 
I pendent. 


21.  Mexico  indepen- 
dent. 

Spaniards  driven 
out  of  Peru. 

22.  Brazil  indepen- 
dent. 

Dom  Pedro  em- 
peror. 

Iturbide  emperor 
of  Mexico. 
United  States  ac- 
knowledge in- 
dependence of 
So’h  American 
Rtr^blics. 

24.  Bolivar  dictator 
of  Peru. 

tc.  Bolivia  indepen- 
dent. 


1 


1825 

John  Quincv  Adams  president. 

John  C.  Calhoun  vice-president; 

i6.  Uruguay  i n d c- 
pendent. 

Protective  tariff  bill  passed. 

29.  Andrew  Jackson  president. 

John  0,  Calhoun  vice-president.  ' ^ 

32.  Veto  United  States  Bank  bill. 

Black  Hawk  war. 

29.  Formation  of 
United  States- 
of  Colombia. 

33.  Martin  Van  Buren  vice-president. 

. Pubjic  funds  withdrawn  from  United 
States  Bank. 

35.  Seminole  war. 

ji.  Dom  Pedro  ab- 
dicates, his  six 
year  old  son, 
Dom  Pedro  II., 
emperor  of 
Brazil. 

36.  Arkansas  admitted.  . , 

52.  Texans  revolt. 

35:.  Martin  V an  Buren  president.  J 

- Richard  M.  Johnson  vice-president.  " 

Michig'an  admitted. 

Financial  crisis,  banks  suspend, 
ness  failures  and  distress  throughout; 
the  country.  ^ 

J3.  D e f e a t of  the 
Mexicans. 

40.  Northeastern  boundary  line  disputes. 

57.  Insurrection  i n 
Canada. 

41.  William  H.  Harrison  president. 

John  Tyler  vice-president. 

Harrison  dies  April  4th,  ; 

John  Tyler  president. 

Veto  of  bank  bill. 

43.  Dorr  rebellion  in  Rhode  Island. 

44.  Texas  applies  for  annexation, 

45,  James  K.  Polk  president. 

George  M.  Dallas  vice-president., 

Texas  annexed.  r 

Florida  admitted. 

45.  War  between  U. 

S.  and  Mexico. 

46.  Iowa  admitted. 

War  with  Mexico.  Battles  of  Palo  Alto, 
and  Resaca  de  la  Palma. 

47.  Buena  Vista,  Cerro  Gordo  and  Contreras. 

Capture  of  city  of  Mexico. 

48.  Acquisition  of  New  Mexico  and  Calin> 

fornia. 

Wisconsin  admitted.  . 

(XIV.) 

1849 

‘.jg^aehary  Tja-vlor 

;<  'MiUara  Fillmore'  vlcgypre^^i^^^-^ 

50.  Lopez’  attempt 
on  Cuba. 

;‘  5Jtji /Pue^Edeot  Taylor  dies.  - '■  ■'■■: 

MUlard  FiUmote  president*^  / - ; *' 

\ , ^^fbrnia  admitted.  - >: 

+ Fugitive  siav^  law  passfd^  ^ ' 

•*'.■-  ■ - / \ 

51,  Lopez  garroted. 

^r^FranklixrFteTce  president. 

^"^-WiHiara  RHfus  King  ^ 

Martin  Kosra  prote^pQ'.  ..j*  • '< 

53.  Santa  Anna  dic- 
tator of  Mexi- 
co. 

55,  Commotions  in  Kansas,  ,1,— • X 

'James  Buchanan  presideniti-  . 

C,  Breckinridge  vice*presid©ttt. . 
^iJI'ilOjped  Scott  decision,  , ^ 

56.  Walker’s  Nic- 
araguan expe- 
dition. 

Hinuesota  admitted* 

§8.  Juarez  president 
of  Mexico. 

Se>,  Oregon  admitted. 

£x,  Kansas  admitte  d. 

-Abraham  L i n- 
V;  , ' ^j^n  president. 

} Hannibal  H a m- 

lin  vic.e-presi’t. 
Attack  on  Fort- 
. : Sumter. 

• ;'  Harper’s  Ferry 
_*  ' a n d Norfolk 
■■■seizedi' 

B^le  of  B u 

"CONFEDERATE 

STATES. 

; 3i.  Sou  th  Carolina, 
Mississippi, Ala- 
, bama,  Florida, 

Georgia,  Louis- 
iana, Texas, 

'■  Arkansas,  Ten- 

nessee and  N’th 
p Carolina,  se- 

j cede. 

(XV.) 

6a.  Capture  of  Fort 
JDoiddson. 

Battle  o f /P  e a 

B Ridge. 

« Batfele  of  Shiloh, 

Battle,  of  -F  a i r 

Seven  days’  bat- 
[■;  tles~-C  h i c k a- 

hominy, 

Hattie  of  Cedar 
Mountain; 

Second  battle  of  ' 
Bull  Run^ 

i'p  a t i o n 
prod  amation' 

1 ^issued, 

p:  .Virginia 

adhitted. 

4 Jefferson  Davis 
i president. 

1 Virginia  secedes. 

02.  Battles  of  Corinth, 

\ o f Fredericks- 

burg. of  Mur- 
1 freesboro. 

63.  Battle  of  Chan- 
cellorsville. 

Siege  of  Vicks- 
burg. 

Battle  of  Getty 8- 
; burg. 

Battle  of  Chicka- 
mauga. 

62.  France  at  war 

with  Mexico. 

63.  French  enter 

city  of  Mexico. 

Archduke  Max- 
imilian of  Aus- 
tria invited  to 
become  e m- 
peror, 

64.  He  accepts. 

1864 


S'/-  lifeva^  adi^fedv?  ^ 5^^ 

^65.  Andi’E^^V'- . Johnson 
vice-president.  ;.i 

President  Liii^In 
shot,  April  14!^ 

Andrew  Joiinsofi:^ 
--president.  ' 

k.i^m nesty^^r  s « u e d ' 

' by  the  president.  ^ 


Siege  of  Peters- 
burg. 

Battle  of  Five 
Forks. 

Capture  of  Peters- 
burg and  Rich- 
mond, 

Surrender  of  Lee, 
Johnston  and 
Kirby  Smith, 

End  of  the  war. 


<^S- 


66. 


67, 


Nebraska  admitted;  ^ ^ " 

Alask^  purchased. 

68,  Readmission  of  Southern 

69.  Ulysses  S.  Grant  president.  - ' ' 1 
Schuyler  Colfax  vice-president. 

72.  Genevan  award.  ^ 1 

73.  Henry  Wilson  vice-president. 

Modoc  war, 

76.  Colorado  admitted, 

77.  Rutherford  B.  Hayes  president, 

William  A.  Wheeler  vice-president. 
Railroad  riots.  - . 

81.  James  A.  Garfield  president.  ^ ' 
Chester-A.  Arthur  vice-president,  * 
President  Garfield  shot  by  Gniteau,-  . : 
Chester  A.  Arthur  president,  - 

85.  Grover  Cleveland  president.  . 

Thomas  A.  Hendricks  vice-presicfent.  , ^ 

86.  Anarchist  riot,  Chicago. 

88.  Lord  Sackville,  British  minist^fr* 

missed. 

89.  Benjamin  W,  Harrison  president. 

Levi  P.  Morton  vice-president. 

North  and  South  Dakota.  ' 

and  Montana  admitted  to  th«lt^nl6n.; . 

90.  Idaho  and  Wyoming  admitted  to  the  XJmph. 
(-9^- 


Paraguay  at  war 
with  Uruguay, 
Brazil  and  Ar- 
senti ne  Re  pub - 

Spain  and  Chili 
at  war, 

Juarists  in  Mex-, 
ico  have  great 
successes. 

Surrender  and 
execution  o t 
Maximilian. 

Cuban  revolt. 

War  between 
Chili  and  Peru. 

Civil  war  in 
Hayti. 


XVI. 


Austria 

Hungary 


GERMANY 


FRANCE 


JEiiropean 


Proportionate  Strength 
1,000  parts. 


Balance  of  Bower. 


I 

Deduced  from  tables 
^sof  population,  wealth,  debts, 
Sonnies,  navies  & railroadr 


Greece 


Switzerland 


Servia 


Denmark 


Bulgaria! 


iRoumania  NOT^ay  Neth’Pds  Belgium  Portugal J 


7 


u 

/\ _■ 

P-' 

213 

, \ 

113 

t RUSSIAN  EMP, 

Great 

' ' ■ 

Britain 

and 

h--  ■ - 

V-' ; 

Ireland 

Ky 


Our  Foreign  Trade. 

Exports  to. ilSSS.) 


Great 

Britain 


$364,210,116 

$ 180,136,570 

In  the  small  blocks  below  the 
figures  stand  for  millions . 

Germany 

France 

Canada 


56,414, 


42,200,446 


West  Indies  and 
Cent’l  America 


78,421,835 


72,109,816 


37,245,119 


Brazil 

Cuba 

Belgium 

Spain 

East  Ind. 

China 

Australia 


n 


25.2 


43,084,123 


42,842,097 


10. 


53,710,234 


25,180,733  9.8 

14.6 

15.5 

6,1 

21.7 

1 7.9^ 

17.8 

r 

49,319,087 


Hawaii  Isl’ds 

1 

i\  11 

Argent.  Hep. 

■ 6.6' 

5.9 

Austria 

^"8.6 

Sweden  & Nor. 

2.7  3.2 

, 

, ^ Denmark 

3.6 

: ■ 

Italy 
Neth’Bds 
Mexico 
Japan 
Russia 
Switzerland 
Colombia 
Portugal 
Chili 


12.7 

18.4 

16.2  ^ 

12.3 

' 9.8 

17.2 

4.2j^ 

18.6 

11.3  3.5 


13.'; 

r 

rs 

4.3 

5,2  1.5  i 

.2.4 

2.8  i. 

H All  other  CounFs  iL7[  9.8 


Growth  of  IT.  S.  Population  since  1820. 


Immigration, 
and  increase . 


Original  Stock 


1889- 


21,467,649 


1880  — 


1870 


1860 


1850- 


1840 


1830 


<D  ^ 


-B 


- a 


5-1  O 
4-1  •r-l  r^ 


cs  'd  ^ o 

^ .2  g 


II 


1820 


Tho  fisuroB  (lonote  the  number 
of  kkOhBB  of  rainfall  in  a jrear. 


Comparative  Growth 
of  Seven  Languages  during 
Eighty-two  Years. 


Bnghsli,  125,861,000 


30,521,000. 


A fair  inference  is  that  English 
become  the  universal  medium. 


i 


Farm  Animals, 


From  Statistics  of  tlie  Agricultural  Dep’mt. 


Horses 

United  States 


Cattle 


12,495,746  W 

Russia 


20,016,000 

Australasia 


France 


Gr.  1,91 
Britain] 


Africa 

'^Canada 


-24,052!ljoo"jf  5 

19,90 

^23] 

[934^ 

SSI  w 


have  died 


10  years 


20  years 


in 

30  years 


in 

40  years 


in 

50  years 


m 

60  years 


in 

70  years 


in 

80  years 


m 

90  years 


in 

100  years 


110  years 




Duration  of  Life. 


Of  1,000,000  persons  horn 


511,745 
are  Males 


353,031 

Males  are  alive 


333,608 

Males  are  alive 


304,534 

Males 


272,073 


233,216 


182,350 


26  per  cent,  die 
during  the  first  5 
/years.  Up  to  53  years 
/the  males  predominate 
thereafter  the  females 
’ show  the  greater  vitality. 


1,000,000 


Receipts] 

S, 100,000] 


Ixhibitors 


A^7,254,68Z 

Exhibitors  42,- 


Ibitors 


Receipts 

8,380,000 


Visitors,  28,149,353, 
Exhibitors,  55,000 


Cost  4,000,000 


Paris,  1867. 

217  days. 


Vienna,  1873 
186  days. 


Philadelphia,  1876. 
159  days . 


Receipts 

3,800,000 


Paris,  1889 


INTERESTING  FACTS  OF  SCIENCE  AND  STATISTICS. 


A HAWK  flies  150  miles  per  hour;  an  eider  duck,  90  miles;  a 
pigeon,  40  miles. 

A man’s  working  life  is'  divided  into  four  decades;  20  to  30, 
bronze;  30  to  40,  silver;  40  to  50,  gold;  50  to  60,  iron.  Intellect 
and  judgment  are  strongest  between  40  and  50. 

Hair  which  is  lightest  in  color  is  also  lightest  in  weight; 
Light  or  blonde  hair  is  generally  the  most  luxuriant,  and  it  has 
been  calculated  that  the  average  number  of  hairs  of  this  color  on 
an  average  person’s  head  is  140,000;  while  the  number  of  brown 
hairs  is  110,000,  and  black  only  103,000. 

Goldsmith  received  $300  for  the  “Vicar  of  Wakefield;”  Moore, 
$15,500  for  “Lalla  Rookh;”  Victor  Hugo,  $12,000  for  “Hernani;” 
Chateaubriand,  $110,000  for  his  works;  Lamartine,  $16,000  for 
“Travels  in  Palestine;”  Disraeli,  $50,000  for  “Endymion;” 
Anthony  Trollope,  $315,000  for  forty -five  novels;  Lingard,  $21,- 
500  for  his  “History  of  England;”  Mrs.  Grant  received  over 
$600,000  as  royalty  from  the  sale  of  “The  Personal  Memoirs  of 
U.  S.  Grant.” 

One  woman  in  20,  one  man  in  30  is  barreii^about  4 per  cent. 
It  is  found  that  one  marriage  in  20  is  barren — 5 per  cent.  Among 
the  nobility  of  Great  Britain,  21  per  cent,  have  no  childreti,  owing 
partly  to  intermarriage  of  cousins,  no  less  than  43^  per  cent, 
being  married  to  cousins. 

The  capital  employed  in  banking  in  the  principal  countries  is 
as  follows:  Great  Britain,  $4,020,000,000;  United  States,  $2,655,- 
000,000;  Germany,  $1,425,000,000;  France,  $1,025,000,000;  Austria^ 
$830,000,000;  Russia,  $775,000,000;  Italy,  $455,000,000;  Australia, 
$425,000,000;  Canada,  $175,000,000. 

The  largest  bells  are  the  following,  and  their  weight  is  given 
in  tons:  Moscow,  202;  Burmah,  117;  Pekin,  53;  Novgorod,  31; 
Notre  Dame,  18;  Rouen,  18;  Olmutz,  18;  Vienna,  18;  St.  Paul’s, 
16;  Westminster,  14;  Montreal,  12;  Cologne,  ii;  Oxford,  8;  St. 
Peter’s,  8. 

Bell-metal  should  have  77  parts  copper,  and  23  tin. 

American  life  average  for  professions  (Boston):  Store- 
keepers, 41.8  years;  teamsters,  43.6  years;  laborers,  44.6  years; 
seamen,  46.1  years;  mechanics,  47.3  years;  merchants,  48.4 years; 
lawyers,  52.6  years;  farmers,  64.2  years. 

In  the  small-pox  epidemic  Of  1881,  in  England,  the  returns 
showed  4,478  deaths  per  million  inhabitants — 98  vaccinated  to 
4,380  unvaccinated,  or  in  the  proportion  of  44  to  i.  In  the  epi- 
demic at  Leipsic  in  1871,  the  death  rate  was  12,700  per  million, 
70  per  cent,  of  whom  were  unvaccinated.  These  figures  are  by 
Dr.  Mulhall.  In  Boston  the  proportion  was  15  to  50,  and  in 
Philadelphia,  17  to  64. 


22.5 


FACTS  OF  SCIENCE  AND  STATISTICS. 

During  the  Franco-German  war  the  Germans  lost  only  263 
men  from  this  disease,  the  French  23,499,  the  foi'iner  having  been 
revaccinated  in  barracks.  In  the  war  in  Paraguay,  the  Bra- 
zilians lost  43,000  men  from  malignant  or  black  small-pox,  that 
is,  35  per  cent,  of  their  army,  nine  cases  in  ten  proving  fatal. 

A CAMEL  has  twice  the  carrying  power  of  an  ox;  with  an 
ordinary  load  of  400  lbs.  he  can  travel  12  to,  14  days  without 
water,  going  40  miles  a day.  Camels  are  fit  to  work  at  5 years 
old,  but  their  strength  begins  to  decline  at  25,  although  they  live 
usually  till  40. 

The  checks  paid  in  New  York  and  London  in  one  month 
aggregate  $6,350,000,000,  which  is  greatly  in  excess  of  the  value 
of  all  the  gold  and  silver  coin  in  existence. 

Pounds  of  water  evaporated  by  i lb.  of  fuel  as  follows: 
Straw,  1.9;  wood,  3.1;  peat,  3.8;  coke  or  charcoal,  6.4;  coal,  7.9; 
petroleum,  14.6. 

In  1877  the  newspaper  Natioiiale  of  Paris  had  ten  pigeons 
which  carried  dispatches  daily  between  Versailles  and  Paris  in 
fifteen  to  twenty  minutes.  In  November,  1882,  some  pigeons,  in 
face  of  a strong  wind,  made  the  distance  of  160  miles,  from  Can- 
ton Vaud  to  Paris,  in  hours,  or  25  miles  per  hour. 

The  average  elevation  of  continents  above  sea  level  is:  Europe, 
670  feet;  Asia,  1,140  feet;  North  America,  1,150  feet;  South 
America,  1,100  feet. 

In  1684,  four  men  were  taken  alive  out  of  a mine  in  England, 
after  24  days  without  food.  In  1880,  Dr.  Tanner,  in  New  York, 
lived  on  water  for  40  days,  losing  36  lbs.  in  weight. 

The  fair  of  Nijni- Novgorod  is  the  greatest  in  the  world,  the 
value  of  goods  sold  being  as  follows:  1841,  $35,000,000;  1857, 
$60,000,000;  1876,  $140,000,000;  the  attendance  in  the  last  named 
year  including  150,000  merchants  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 
In  that  of  Leipsic  the  annual  average  of  sales  is  $20,000,000, 
comprising  20,000  tons  of  merchandise,  of  which  two-fifths  is 
books. 

The  average  annual  production  of  flax  is  as  follows:  Russia, 
270,000  tons;  Austria,  53,000;  Germany,  48,000;  Belgium  and 
Holland,  38,000;  France,  37,000;  United  Kingdom,  25,000;  Italy, 
23,000;  United  States,  12,000;  Scandinavia,  4,000 — total,  510,000 
tons. 

A BODY  weighing  140  lbs.  produces  3 lbs.  ashes;  time  for  burn- 
ing,  55  minutes. 

The  six  largest  diamonds  in  the  world  weigh,  respectively,  as 
follows:  Kohinoor,  103  carats;  Star  of  Brazil,  125  carats;  Regent 
of  France,  136  carats;  Austrian  Kaiser,  139  carats;  Russian  Czar, 
193  carats;  Rajah  of  Borneo,  367  carats.  The  value  of  the  above 
is  not  regulated  by  size,  nor  easy  to  estimate,  but  none  of  them 
is  worth  less  than  $500,000.  [220] 


FACTS  OF  SCIENCE  AND  STATISTICS. 


According  to  Orfila,  the  proportion  of  nicotine  in  Havana 
tobacco  is  2 per  cent.;  in  French,  6 per  cent.,  and  in  Virginia 
tobacco,  7 per  cent.  That  in  Brazilian  is  still  higher. 

There  were  2,180  lepers  in  Norway  in  1883,  according  to  Mul- 
hall.  The  numbers  in  Spain  and  Italy  are  considerable.  In  the 
Sandwich  Islands  the  disease  is  so  prevalent  that  the  island  of 
Molokai  is  set  apart  for  lepers,  who  are  under  the  direction  of  a 
French  Jesuit  priest.  The  death  of  Father  Damien,  in  1889, 
called  attention  to  the  noblest  instance  of  self-sacrifice  recorded 
in  the  nineteenth  century.  His  place  is  now  filled  by  a younger 
member  of  his  order,  who  voluntarily  sacrifices  his  health  and 
life  to  aid  the  outcasts.  In  the  Seychelles  Islands  leprosy  is  also 
common. 

One  horse-power  will  raise  10  tons  per  minute  a height  of  12 
inches,  working  8 hours  a day.  This  is  about  5,000  foot-tons  daily, 
or  12  times  a man’s  work. 

The  horse-power  of  Niagara  is  1,}^  million  nominal,  equal  to 
10  million  horses  effective. 

Good  clear  ice  two  inches  thick  will  bear  men  to  walk  on; 
four  inches  thick  will  bear  horses  and  riders;  six  inches  thick 
will  bear  horses  and  teams  with  moderate  loads. 

The  percentage  of  illegitimate  births  for  various  countries,  as 
stated  by  Mulhall,  is  as  follows:  Austria,  12.9;  Denmark,  11.2; 
Sweden,  10.2;  Scotland,  8.9;  Norway,  8.05;  Germany,  8.04; 
France,  7.02;  Belgium,  7.0;  United  States,  7.0;  Italy,  6.8;  Spain 
and  Portugal,  5.5;  Canada,  5.0;  Switzerland,  4.6;  Holland,  3.5; 
Russia,  3.1;  Ireland,  2.3;  Greece,  1.6. 

India  Rubber  is  obtained  mostly  from  the  Seringueros  of  the 
Amazon,  who  sell  it  for  about  12  cents  a pound  to  the  merchants 
of  Para,  but  its  value  on  reaching  England  or  the  United  States 
is  over  50  cents  a pound.  The  best  rubber  forests  in  Brazil  will 
ultimately  be  exhausted,  owing  to  the  reckless  mode  followed  by 
the  Seringueros,  or  tappers.  The  ordinary  product  of  a tapper’s 
work  is  from  10  to  16  lbs.  daily.  There  are  120  india  rubber 
manufacturers  in  the  United  States,  employing  15,000  operatives, 
who  produce  280,000  tons  of  goods,  valued  at  $260,000,000  per 
annum. 

One  pair  of  rabbits  can  become  multiplied  in  four  years  into 
1,250,000.  They  were  introduced  in  Australia  a few  years  ago, 
and  now  that  colony  ships  6,000,000  rabbit  skins  yearly  to  Eng- 
land. 

The  largest  of  the  Pyramids,  that  of  Cheops,  is  composed  of 
four  million  tons  of  stone,  and  occupied  100,000  men  during  20 
years,  equal  to  an  outlay  of  $200,000,000.  It  would  now  cost  $20,^ 
000,000  at  a contract  price  of  36  cents  per  cubic  foot. 

One  tug  on  the  Mississippi  can  take,  in  six  days,  from  St. 

227 


FACTS  OF  SCIENCE  AND  STATISTICS. 


Louis  to  New  Orleans,  barges  carrying  10,000  tons  of  grain, 
which  would  require  70  railway  trains  of  fifteen  cars  each.  Tugs 
in  the  Suez  Canal  tow  a vessel  from  sea  to  sea  in  44  hours. 

Comparative  Scale  of  Strength. — Ordinary  man,  100; 
Byron’s  Gladiator,  173;  Farnese  Hercules,  362;  Horse,  750. 

A MAN  will  die  for  want  of  air  in  five  minutes;  for  want  of 
^leep,  in  ten  days;  for  want  of  water,  in  a week;,  for  want  of 
food,  at  varying  intervals,  dependent  on  various  circum- 
stances. 

The  average  of  human  life  is  33  years.  One  child  out  of  every 
four  dies  before  the  age  of  7 years,  and  only  one-half  of  the 
world’s  population  reach  the  age  of  17.  One  out  of  10,000 
reaches  100  years.  The  average  number  of  births  per  day  is 
about  120,000,  exceeding  the  deaths  by  about  15  per  minute. 
There  have  been  many  alleged  cases  of  longevity  in  all  ages,  but 
only  a few  are  authentic. 

The  ratio  of  sickness  rises  and  falls  regularly  with  death  rate 
in  all  countries,  as  shown  by  Dr.  Farr  and  Mr.  Edmonds  at  the 
London  Congress  of  i860,  when  the  following  rule  was  estab- 
lished: Of  1,000  persons,  aged  30,  it  is  probable  10  will  die  in 
the  year,  in  which  case  there  will  be  20  of  that  age  sick  through- 
out the  year,  and  10  invalids.  Of  1,000  persons,  aged  75,  it  is 
probable  that  100  will  die  in  the  year,  in  which  case  the  sick  and 
invalids  of  that  age  will  be  300  throughout  the  year.  For  every 
100  deaths  let  there  be  hospital  beds  for  200  sick,  and  mfirmaries 
for  100  invalids. 

The  estimated  number  of  religious  denominations  among 
English-speaking  communities  throughout  the  world  is  as  fol- 
lows: Episcopalians,  21,100,000;  Methodists  of  all  descriptions, 
15,800,000;  Roman  Catholics,  14,340,000;  Presbyterians  of  all 
descriptions,  10,500,000;  Baptists  of  all  descriptions,  8,160,000; 
Congregationalists,  6,000,000;  Unitarians,  1,000,000;  Free 
Thought,  1,100,000;  minor  religious  sects,  2,000,000;  of  no  par- 
ticular religion,  20,000,000.  Total  English  speaking  population, 
100,000,000. 

The  various  nations  of  Europe  are  represented  in  the  list  of 
Popes  as  follows:  English,  i;  Dutch,  i;  Swiss,  i;  Portuguese,  i; 
Afiican,  2;  Austrian,  2;  Spanish,  5;  German,  6;  Syrian,  8;  Greek, 
14;  French,  15;  Italian,  197.  Eleven  Popes  reigned  over  20 
years;  69,  from  10  to  20;  57,  from  5 to  10;  and  the  reign  of  116 
was  less  than  5 years.  The  reign  of  Pius  IX.  was  the  longest 
of  all,  the  only  one  exceeding  25  years.  Pope  Leo  XHI.  is  the 
258ch  Pontiff.  The  full  number  of  the  Sacred  College  is  70, 
namely:  Cardinal  Bishops,  6;  Cardinal  Priests,  50;  Cardinal 
Deacons,  14.  At  present  there  are  62  Cardinals.  The  Roman 
Catholic  hierarchy  throughout  the  world,  according  to  official 

228 


FACTS  OF  SCIENCE  AND  STATISTICS. 


returns  published  at  Rome  in  1884,  consisted  of  ii  Patriarchs, 
and  1,153  Archbishops  and  Bishops.  Including  12  coadjutor  or 
auxiliary  bishops,  the  number  of  Roman  Catholic  archbishops 
and  bishops  now  holding  office  in  the  British  Empire  is  134.  The 
numbers  of  the  clergy  are  approximate  only. 

Consumption. — Of  the  total  number  of  deaths  the  percent- 
age traceable  to  consumption  in  the  several  States  and  Territories 
is  as  follows:  Alabama,  9.6;  Arizona,  6.1;  Arkansas,  6.4;  Cali- 
fornia, 15.6;  Colorado,  8.2;  Connecticut,  15.1;  Dakota,  8.8; 
Delaware,  16.1;  District  of  Columbia,  18.9;  Florida,  8.3;  Georgia, 
7.9;  Idaho,  6.8;  Illinois,  10.3,  Indiana,  12.6;  Iowa,  9.9;  Kansas,  7.3; 
Kentucky,  15.7;  Louisiana,  10.4;  Maine,  19.2;  Maryland,  14.0; 
Massachusetts,  15.7;  Michigan,  13.2;  Minnesota,  9.3;  Mississippi, 
8.8;  Missouri,  9.8;  Montana,  5.6;  Nebraska,  8.8;  Nevada,  6.3; 
New  Hampshire,  5.6;  New  Jersey,  8.9;  New  Mexico,  2.4;  New 
York,  8.1;  North  Carolina,  9.5;  Ohio,  13.8;  Oregon,  12. i;  Penn- 
sylvania, 12.6;  Rhode  Island,  14.6;  South  Carolina, 9.8;  Tennes- 
see, 14.5;  Texas,  6.5;  Utah,  2.8;  Vermont,  16.1;  Virginia,  12.2; 
Washington,  13.2;  West  Virginia,  13.0;  Wisconsin,  10.4;  Wyom- 
ing, 2.6;  Average,  12.0. 

Capacity  of  the  largest  public  buildings  in  the  world:  Coli- 
seum, Rome,  87,000;  St.  Peter’s,  Rome,  54,000;  Theater  of 
Pompey,  Rome,  40,000;  Cathedral,  Milan,  37,000;  St.  Paul’s, 
Rome,  32,000;  St.  Paul’s,  London,  31,000;  St.  Petronia,  Bologna, 
26,000;  Cathedral,  Florence,  24,300;  Cathedral,  Antwerp,  24,000; 
St.  John  Lateran,  Rome,  23,000;  St.  Sophia’s,  Constantinople, 
23,000;  Notre  Dame,  Paris,  21,500;  Theater  of  Marcellus,  Rome, 
20,000;  Cathedral,  Pisa,  13,000;  St.  Stephen’s,  Vienna,  12,400;  St. 
Dominic’s,  Bologna,  12,000;  St.  Peter’s,  Bologna,  11,400;  Cathe- 
dral, Vienna,  11,000;  Gilmore’s  Garden,  New  York,  8,443; 
La  Scala,  Milan,  8,000;  Auditorium,  Chicago,  7,000;  Mormon 
Temple,  Salt  Lake  City,  8,000;  St.  Mark’s,  Venice,  7^500;  Spur- 
geon’s Tabernacle,  London,  6,000;  Bolshoi  Theater,  St.  Peters- 
burg, 5,000;  Tabernacle  (Talmage’s),  Brooklyn,  5,000;  Music 
Hall,  Cincinnati,  4,824. 

There  are  3,000,000  opium  smokers  in  China.  A paper  read 
before  the  New  York  Medical  Society  by  Dr.  F.  N.  Hammond 
presents  some  important  facts.  In  1840  about  20,000  pounds  of 
opium  were  consumed  in  the  United  States;  in  1880,  533,450 
pounds.  In  1868  there  were  about  90,000  habitual  opium-eaters 
in  the  country,  now  they  number  over  500,000.  More  women 
than  men  are  addicted  to  the  use  of  the  drug.  The  vice  is  one  so 
easily  contracted,  so  easily  practiced  in  private,  and  so  difficult 
of  detection,  that  it  presents  peculiar  temptations  and  is  very  in- 
siduous.  The  relief  from  pain  that  it  gives  and  the  peculiar  ex- 
altation of  spirits  easily  lead  the  victim  to  believe  .that  the  use 

229 


FACTS  OF  SCIENCE  AND  STATISTICS. 


of  it  is  beneficial.  Opium  and  chloral  are  today  the  most  dead- 
ly foes  of  women.  Dr.  Hammond  is  the  better  qualified  to 
speak  on  this  subject  from  having  once  been  a consumer  of 
opium  himself.  To  break  off  from  the  habit,  he  says,  the  opium- 
eater  must  reduce  the  quantity  of  his  daily  dose,  using  at  the 
same  time  other  stimulants,  and  gradually  eliminate  the  deadly 
drug  entirely. 

The  degrees  of  alcohol  in  wines  and  liquors  are:  Beer,  4.0; 
porter,  4.5;  ale,  7.4;  cider,  8.6;  Moselle,  9.6;  Tokay,  10.2;  Rhine, 
I i.o;  Orange,  1 1.2;  Bordeaux,  11.5;  hock,  1 1.6;  gooseberry,  1 1.8, 
Champagne,  12.2;  claret,  13.3;  Burgundy,  13.6;  Malaga,  17.3; 
Lisbon,  18.5;  Canary,  18.8;  sherry,  19.0;  Vermouth,  19.0; 
Cape,  i9.2;Malmsey,  19.7;  Marsala,  20.2;  Madeira,  21.0;  port, 
23.2;  Curagoa,  27.0;  aniseed,  33.0;  Maraschino,  34.0;  Chartreuse, 
43-o;  gin.  51-6;  brandy,  53.4;  rum,  53.7;  Irish  whisky,  53.9; 
Scotch,  54.3. 

Spirits  are  said  to  be  “proof’  when  they  contain  57  per  cent. 
The  maximum  amount  of  alcohol,  says  Parkes,  that  a man 
can  take  daily  without  injury  to  his  health  is  that  contained  in  2 
oz.  brandy,  P^*  of  sherry,  pt.  of  claret,  or  i pt.  of  beer. 

The  measurement  of  that  part  of  the  skull  which  holds  the 
brain  is  stated  in  cubic  inches  thus:  Anglo-Saxon,  105;  German, 
105;  Negro,  96;  Ancient  Egyptian,  93;  Hottentot,  58;  Australian 
native,  58.  In  all  races  the  male  brain  is  about  ten  per  cent, 
heavier  than  the  female.  The  highest  class  of  apes  has  only  16 
oz.  of  brain.  A man’s  brain,  it  is  estimated,  consists  of  300,000- 
000  nerve  cells,  of  which  over  3,000  are  disintegrated  and  destroyed 
every  minute.  Every  one,  therefore,  has  a new  brain  once  in 
sixty  days.  But  excessive  labor,  or  the  lack  of  sleep,  prevents 
the  repair  of  the  tissues,  and  the  brain  gradually  wastes  away. 
Diversity  of  occupation,  by  calling  upon  different  portions  of 
the  mind  or  body,  successfully  affords,  in  some  measure,  the  re- 
quisite repose  to  each.  But  in  this  age  of  overwork  there  is  no 
safety  except  in  that  perfect  rest  which  is  the  only  natural  resto- 
rative of  exhausted  power.  It  has  been  noticed  by  observant 
physicians  in  their  European  travels  that  the  German  people, 
who,  as  a rule,  have  little  ambition  and  no  hope  to  rise  above 
their  inherited  station,  are  peculiarly  free  from  nervous  diseases; 
but  in  America,  where  the  struggle  for  advancement  is  sharp  and 
incessant,  and  there  is  nothing  that  will  stop  an  American  but 
death,  the  period  of  life  is  usually  shortened  five,  ten  or  twenty 
years  by  the  effects  of  nervous  exhaustion.  After  the  age  of  50 
the  brain  loses  an  ounce  every  ten  years.  Cuvier’s  weighed  64, 
Byron’s  79,  and  Cromwell’s  90  ounces,  but  the  last  was  diseased. 
Post-mortem  examinations  in  France  give  an  average  of  55  to  60 
ounces  for  the  brains  of  the  worst  class  of  criminals, 

230 


FACTS  OF  SCIENCE  ANE>  SFATISTICS. 


In  the  cholera  visitation  of  1866,  the  proportion  of  deaths  per 
10,000  inhabitants  in  the  principal  cities  of  Europe  was  as  fol- 
lows; London,  18;  Dublin,  41;  Vienna,  51;  Marseilles,  64;  Paris, 
66;  Berlin,  83;  Naples,  89;  St.  Petersburg,  98;  Madrid,  102; 
Brussels,  184;  Palermo,  197;  Constantinople,  738. 

There  were  48,930  blind  people  in  the  United  States  in  1880, 
and  33,880  deaf  mutes. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  number  of  insane  persons  in  the 
United  States  is  168,900.  Catises  of  Insanity. — Hereditary,  24 
per  cent.;  drink,  14  per  cent.;  business,  12  per  cent.;  loss  of 
friends,  ii  per  cent;  sickness,  10  per  cent.;  various,  29  per  cent. 
This  result  is  the  medium  average  arrived  at  by  Mulhall  on 
comparing  the  returns  for  the  United  States,  Engand,  P'rance 
and  Denmark. 

No  FEWER  than  1,326  editions  of  the  Bible  were  published  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centu- 
ries it  was  translated  and  published  in  many  languages  by  the 
polyglot  press  of  Propaganda  Fide  at  Rome.  In  the  nineteenth 
century  the  English  and  American  societies  have  printed,  in  the 
Protestant  version,  124,000,000  copies  of  the  Bible  or  of  the  New 
Testament,  viz:  British,  74,000,000;  American,  32,000,000;  other 
societies,  15,000,000  copies. 

The  King  James  version  of  the  Bible  contains  3,566,480  let- 
ters, 773,746  words,  31,173  verses,  1,189  chapters,  and  66  books. 
The  word  and  occurs  46,277  times.  The  word  Lord  occurs 
1,855  times.  The  word  Reverend  occurs  but  once,  which  is  in 
the  9th  verse  of  the  iiith  Psalm.  The  middle  verse  is  the  8th 
verse  of  the  ii8th  Psalm.  The  21st  verse  of  the  7th  chapter  of 
Ezra  contains  all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  except  the  letter  J. 
The  19th  chapter  of  II  Kings  and  the  37th  chapter  of  Isaiah  are 
alike.  The  longest  verse  is  the  9th  verse  of  the  8th  chapter  of 
Esther.  The  shortest  verse  is  the  35th  verse  of  the  nth  chapter 
of  St.  John.  There  are  no  words  or  names  of  more  than  six  syl- 
lables. 


Some  of  Nature’s  Wonders. 

The  human  body  has  240  bones. 

The  musical  scale  was  invented  in  1022. 

Man’s  heart  beats  92,160  times  in  a day. 

A salmon  has  been  known  to  produce  10,000,000  eggs.  Some 
female  spiders  produce  2,000  eggs.  A queen  bee  produces  100,- 
000  eggs  in  a season. 

There  are  9,000  cells  in  a square  foot  of  honejxomb. 

It  requires  2,300  silk  worms  to  produce  one  pound  of  silk. 

It  would  take  27,600  spiders  to  produce  one  pound  of  web. 

231 


LEGAL  ADVICE 


BLACKSTONE  defines  law  as  the  rules  of  human  action 
or  conduct,  but  what  is  commonly  understood  by  the 
term  is  the  civil  or  municipal  regulations  of  a nation  as 
applied  to  a particular  country.  The  forms  of  law  which  gov- 
ern civil  contracts  and  business  intercourse  are  distinguished  as 
statute  and  common.  Statute  law  is  the  written  law  of  the  land, 
as  enacted  by  State  or  national  legislative  bodies.  The  com- 
m.on  law  is  grounded  on  the  general  customs  of  England,  and 
includes  the  law  of  nature,  the  law  of  God,  the  principles  and 
maxims  of  the  law  and  the  decisions  of  the  superior  courts.  It 
overrides  both  the  canon  and  the  civil  law  where  they  go  be- 
yond or  are  inconsistent  with  it. 

To  the  man  involved  in  litigation  the  best  advice  is  to  go  to 
the  best  lawyer  he  can  find.  But  an  ounce  of  prevention  is 
worth  a pound  of  cure,  and  the  purpose  of  the  following  pages  is 
to  furnish  the  ounce  of  prevention.  Knowledge  is  power  in 
nothing  so  much  as  in  business  law,  especially  since  the  law  pre- 
sumes that  no  man  is  ignorant  of  the  law. 


Business  Law  in  Brief. 

Ignorance  of  the  law  excuses  no  one. 

It  is  a fraud  to  conceal  a fraud. 

The  law  compels  no  one  to  do  impossibilities. 

An  agreement  without  consideration  is  void. 

Signatures  made  with  a lead  pencil  are  good  in  law. 

A receipt  for  money  paid  is  not  legally  conclusive. 

The  act  of  one  partner  binds  all  the  others. 

The  seal  of  a party  to  a written  contract  imports  consider- 
ation. 

A contract  made  with  a minor  cajinot  be  enforced  against 
him.  A note  made  by  a minor  is  voidable. 

A contract  made  with  a lunatic  is  void. 

A contract  made  on  a Sunday  is  void. 

Principals  are  liable  for  the  acts  of  their  agents. 

Agents  are  liable  to  their  principals  for  errors. 

Each  individual  in  a partnership  is  liable  for  the  whole  amount 
of  the  debts  of  the  firm. 

A note  which  does  not  state  on  its  face  that  it  bears  interest, 
will  bear  interest  only  after  due. 

A lease  of  land  for  a longer  term  than  one  year  is  void  unless 
in  writing. 

An  indorser  of  a note  is  exempt  from  liability  if  notice  of  its 
dishonor  is  not  mailed  or  served  within  twenty-four  hours  of  its 
non  payment. 

In  case  of  the  death  of  the  principal  maker  of  a note  the  holder 

232 


LEGAL  ADVICE. 


is  not  required  to  notify  a surety  that  the  note  is  not  paid,  before 
the  settlement  of  the  maker’s  estate. 

Notes  obtained  by  fraud,  or  made  by  an  intoxicated  person, 
are  not  collectible. 

If  no  time  of  payment  is  specified  in  a note  it  is  payable  on 
demand. 

An  indorser  can  avoid  liability  by  writing  “without  recourse” 
beneath  his  signature. 

A check  indorsed  by  the  payee  is  evidence  of  payment  in  the 
drawer’s  hands. 

An  outlawed  debt  is  revived  should  the  debtor  make  a partial 
payment. 

Want  of  consideration — a common  defense  interposed  to  the 
payment  of  negotiable  paper — is  a good  defense  between  the 
original  parties  to  the  paper  ; but  after  it  has  been  transferred 
before  maturity  to  an  innocent  holder  for  value  it  is  not  a de- 
fense. 

Negotiable  paper,  payable  to  bearer  or  indorsed  in  blank, 
which  has  been  stolen  or  lost,  cannot  be  collected  by  the  thief 
or  finder,  but  a holder  who  receives  it  in  good  faith  before  ma- 
turity, for  value,  can  hold  it  against  the  owner’s  claims  at  the 
time  it  was  lost. 

Sometimes  the  holder  of  paper  has  the  right  to  demand  pay- 
ment before  maturity  ; for  instance,  when  a draft  has  been  pro- 
tested for  non-acceptance  and  the  proper  notices  served,  the 
holder  may  at  once  proceed  against  the  drawer  and  indorsers. 

If  a note  or  draft  is  to  be  paid  in  the  State  where  it  is  made, 
the  contract  will  be  governed  by  the  laws  of  that  State.  When 
negotiable  paper  is  payable  in  a State  other  than  that  in  which 
it  is  made,  the  laws  of  that  State  will  govern  it.  Marriage  con- 
tracts, if  valid  where  they  are  made,  are  valid  evervwhere. 
Contracts  relating  to  personal  property  are  governed  by  the  laws 
of  the  place  where  made,  except  those  relating  to  real  estate, 
which  are  governed  by  the  laws  of  the  place  where  the  land  is 
situated. 

If  negotiable  paper,  pledged  to  a bank  as  security  for  the 
payment  of  a loan  or  debt,  falls  due,  and  the  bank  fails  to  de- 
mand payment  and  have  it  protested  when  dishonored,  the  bank 
is  liable  to  the  owner  for  the  full  amount  of  the  paper. 


Agreements  and  Contracts. 

A contract  or  agreement  is  where  a promise  is  made  on  one 
side  and  assented  to  on  the  other,  or  where  two  or  more  per- 
sons enter  into  engagement  with  each  other  by  a promise  on 
either  side.  In  a written  contract  assent  is  proven  by  the  signa- 
ture or  mark.  In  verbal  agreements  it  may  be  given  by  a word 

233 


LEGAL  ADVICE, 


or  a nod,  by  shaking  of  hands,  or  by  a sign.  The  old  saw, 
“Silence  gives  consent,”  is  often  upheld  in  law. 

The  conditions  of  a contract,  as  applying  to  individuals,  are: 
I.  Age  ; 2.  Rationality  ; and  3,  as  to  Corporations,  the  posses- 
sion of  general  or  special  statutory  powers. 

Persons  under  age  are  incompetent  to  make  contracts,  except 
under  certain  limitations.  Generally  such  persons  are  incapa- 
ble of  making  binding  contracts. 

As  to  rationality,  the  general  principle  of  law  is  that  all 
persons  not  rendered  incompetent  by  personal  disability,  or  by 
considerations  of  public  policy,  are  capable  of  making  a contract. 

Corporations  have  powers  to  make  contracts  strictly  within  the 
limits  prescribed  by  their  charters,  or  by  special  or  general  statute. 

The  first  step  toward  a contract  is  the  proposition  or  offer, 
which  may  be  withdrawn  at  any  time  before  it  is  agreed  to. 
When  the  proposition  is  verbal,  and  no  time  is  specified,  it  is  not 
binding  unless  accepted  at  once.  To  give  one  the  option  or  re- 
fusal of  property  at  a specified  price,  is  simply  to  give  him  a cer- 
tain time  to  make  up  his  mind  whether  he  will  buy  the  property 
or  not.  To  make  the  option  binding  he  must  accept  within  the 
time  named.  The  party  giving  the  option  has  the  right  to  with- 
draw it,  and  sell  the  property  to  another,  at  any  time  previous  to 
its  acceptance,  if  the  offer  is  gratuitous,  and  there  is  no  consid- 
eration to  support  it. 

If  a letter  of  acceptance  is  mailed,  and  immediately  after  a 
letter  withdrawing  the  offer  is  received,  the  contract  is  binding. 
An  acceptance  takes  effect  from  the  time  it  is  mailed,  not  from 
the  time  it  is  received  ; it  must,  however,  be  in  accordance  with 
the  original  proposition,  for  any  new  matter  introduced  would 
constitute  a new  offer.  When  the  offer  is  accepted,  either  ver- 
bally or  in  writing,  it  is  an  express  assent,  and  is  binding. 

A contract  made  under  a mistake  of  law  is  not  void.  Every- 
body is  presumed  to  know  the  law.  This,  however,  applies  only 
to  contracts  permitted  by  law  and  clear  of  fraud. 

A refusal  of  an  offer  cannot  be  retracted  without  the  consent 
of  the  second  party.  Once  a proposition  is  refused,  the  matter 
is  ended.  And  no  one  has  the  right  to  accept  an  offer  except 
the  person  to  whom  it  was  made. 

The  consideration  is  the  reason  or  thing  for  which  the  parties 
bind  themselves  in  the  contract,  and  it  is  either  a benefit  to  the 
promisor  or  an  injury  to  the  oth^r  party.  Considerations  are 
technically  divided  into  valuable  and  good^  and  it  sometimes 
happens  that  the  consideration  need  not  be  expressed,  but  is  im- 
plied. A valuable  consideration  is  either  money  or  property  or 
service  to  be  given,  or  some  injury  to  be  endured.  A promise 
to  marry  is  considered  a valuable  consideration.  A good  con- 

234 


LEGAL  ADVICE, 


sideration  means  that  the  contract  is  entered  into  because  of  con^ 
sanguinity  or  affection,  which  will  support  the  contract  when 
executed,  but  will  not  support  an  action  to  enforce  an  executory 
contract.  Whether  a consideration  is  sufficient  or  not  is  tested 
by  its  being  a benefit  to  the  promisor  or  an  injury  to  the  other 
party.  If  it  has  a legal  value,  it  makes  no  difference  how  small 
that  value  may  be.  The  promisor  need  not  always  be  benefited, 
as,  for  instance,  the  indorser  of  a note,  who  is  liable  although  he 
gets  no  benefit.  But  if  a person  promise  to  do  something  him- 
self for  which  no  consideration  is  to  be  received,  there  is  no 
cause  of  action  for  breach  of  the  contract. 

There  are  several  causes  which  void  contracts,  first  among 
which  is  fraud.  Fraud  is  defined  to  be  “every  kind  of  artifice 
employed  by  one  person  for  the  purpose  of  willfully  deceiving 
another  to  his  injury.”  No  fraudulent  contract  will  stand  in  law 
or  in  equity.  The  party  upon  whom  the  fraud  has  been  prac- 
ticed must  void  the  contract  as  soon  as  he  discovers  the  fraud, 
for  if  he  goes  on  after  having  knowledge  of  the  fraud  he  cannot 
afterwards  avoid  it.  But  the  one  who  perpetrates  the  fraud 
cannot  plead  that  ground  for  voiding  it.  Contracts  in  restraint 
of  trade  are  void,  as  also  are  contracts  in  opposition  to  public 
policy,  impeding  the  course  of  justice,  in  restraint  of  marriage 
contrary  to  the  insolvent  acts,  or  for  immoral  purposes.  Anj 
violation  of  the  essential  requisites  of  a contract,  or  the  omissior 
of  an  essential  requisite,  will  void  it. 

DON’T  enter  into  an  agreement  on  a Sunday  unless  it  is  rati 
fied  on  a week  day. 

DON’T  make  a contract  with  a person  of  unsound  mind  oj 
under  the  influence  of  liquor,  or  otherwise  under  restraint  ol 
liberty,  mind  or  body.  Use  caution  in  making  contracts  with 
an  illiterate,  blind  or  deaf  and  dumb  person,  and  see  to  it  that 
witnesses  are  present. 

DON’T  put  a forced  construction  on  a contract — the  intent  of 
the  parties  is  a contract. 

DON’T  suppose  that  you  can  withdraw  a proposition  made  in 
writing  and  sent  by  mail  after  the  party  to  whom  it  was  made 
has  mailed  an  unconditional  acceptance. 

DON’T  suppose  that  a conditional  acceptance  of  a proposition 
is  binding  on  the  party  making  the  proposition. 

DON’T  forget  that  the  courts  will  construe  a contract  ac- 
cording to  the  law  prevailing  where  it  was  made. 

DON’T  forget  that  the  law  says,  “no  consideration,  no  con- 
tract,” and  that  the  courts  will  not  enforce  a contract  which  is 
too  severe -in  its  provisions. 

DON’T  sign  an  agreement  unless  you  have  carefully  "weighed 
its  provisions,  which  should  all  be  fixed  and  certain. 

235 


Notes  and  Negotiable  Paper. 

The  superstructure  of  business  as  it  exists  to-daj  rests  on  the 
broad  foundation  of  confidence — the  result  of  what  maj  be  called 
the  evolution  of  commerce,  and  the  principal  stages  in  this  evo- 
lution are  an  interesting  study.  First  there  was  only  barter  in 
kind,  as  still  practiced  among  savages — for  example,  the  ex- 
change of  a bushel  of  corn  for  a handful  of  arrow-heads.  Then 
came  the  introduction  of  money  as  a medium  of  exchange  ; and 
to-day  we  have  the  substitution  of  negotiable  paper  as  docu- 
mentary evidence  of  indebtedness,  including  promissory  notes, 
due  bills,  drafts,  checks,  certificates  of  deposit,  bills  of  exchange, 
bank  bills,  treasury  notes  (greenbacks),  and  all  other  evidences 
of  debt,  the  ownership  of  which  may  be  transferred  from  one 
person  to  another. 

The  mere  acknowledgment  of  debt  is  not  sufficient  to  make 
negotiable  paper  ; iho.  j>romise  of  payment  or  an  order  on  some 
one  to  pay  is  indispensable.  This  promise  must  be  for  money 
only.  The  amount  must  be  exactly  specified.  The  title  must 
be  transferable.  This  feature  must  be  visible  on  the  face  of  the 
paper  by  the  use  of  such  words  as  “bearer”  or  “order.”  In  some 
of  the  States  peculiar  phrases  are  ordered  by  statute,  as  “Payable 

without  defalcation  or  discount,”  or  “Payable  at ,”  naming 

the  bank  or  office. 

A written  agreement,  signed  by  one  person,  to  pay  another,  at 
a fixed  time,  a stated  sum  of  money,  is  a promissory,  note.  It 
becomes  negotiable  by  being  made  payable  to  an  order  on  some 
one  or  to  bearer.  As  it  is  a contract,  a consideration  is  one  of 
its  essential  elements.  Yet,  although  it  be  void  as  between  the 
two  first  parties,  being  negotiable  and  coming  into  the  hands  of 
another  person  who  gives  value  for  it,  not  knowing  of  its  defect, 
it  has  full  force  and  may  be  collected. 

The  date  is  of  great  consequence.  In  computing  time,  the  day 
of  date  is  not  counted,  but  it  is  the  fixed  point  beginning  the 
time  at  the  end  of  which  payment  must  be  made.  Omission  of 
the  date  does  not  destroy  a note,  but  the  holder  must  prove  to 
the  time  of  its  making.  The  promise  to  pay  must  be  precise  as 
to  time  which  the  note  is  to  run.  It  must  be  at  a fixed  period, 
or  conditional  upon  the  occurrence  of  something  certain  to  hap- 
pen, as  “at  sight,”  “five  days  after  sight,”  “on  demand,”  “three 
months  after  date,”  “ten  days  after  the  death  of  John  Doe.”  The 
time  not  being  specified,  the  note  is  considered  “payable  on  de- 
mand.” 

The  maker,  the  person  who  promises  and  whose  signature  the 
note  bears,  must  be  competent.  Insane  people  and  idiots  are 
naturally ^ and  aliens,  minors  and  married  women  may.be  legally^ 
incompetent.  The  maker  is  responsible  and  binds  himself  to 
pay  the  amount  stated  on  the  note  at  its  maturity.  He  need  not 

236 


LEGAL  ADVICE. 


pay  it  before  it  becomes  due,  but  should  he  do  so  and  neglect  to 
cancel  the  note,  he  would  be  again  responsible  if  any  other  per- 
son, without  knowledge  of  such  payment,  acquired  it  for  value 
before  maturity.  Even  a receipt  for  payment  from  the  first 
payee  would  not  stand  good  against  the  subsequent  holder. 

The  payee  is  the  person  in  whose  favor  the  note  is  drawn— 
the  legal  holder,  the  person  to  whom  the  money  must  be  paid. 
When  a note  is  made  payable  simply  to  bearer,  without  naming 
the  paj^ee,  any  one  holding  the  note  honestly  may  collect. 

A subsequent  party,  one  who  cornes  into  possession  of  the  note 
after  the  original  holder,  has  a better  claim  than  the  first  one, 
for  the  reason  that  between  the  maker  and  the  first  paj^ee  there 
may  have  been,  in  the  contract,  some  understanding  or  condition 
militating  against  the  payment  when  it  would  become  due,  but 
the  third  person,  knowing  nothing  of  this,  gives  his  value  and 
receives  the  note.  The  law  will  always  sustain  the  subsequent 
party. 

The  indorser  is  held  responsible  if  the  maker  fails  to  pay  when 
the  note  arrives  at  maturity.  A note  payable  to  order  must  be 
indorsed  by  a holder  upon  passing  it  to  another,  and,  as  value 
has  been  given  each  time,  the  last  holder  will  look  to  his  next 
preceding  one  and  to  all  the  others. 

A note,  being  on  deposit  as  collateral  security,  becoming  due, 
the  temporary  holder  is  the  payee  and  must  collect. 

An  indorsement  is  a writing  across  the  back  of  the  note,  which 
makes  the  writer  responsible  for  the  amount  of  the  note.  There 
are  various  forms  of  indorsement. 

1.  In  blanks  the  indorser  simply  writing  his  name  on  the  back 
of  the  note. 

2.  General^  or  in  full^  the  indorser  writing  above  his  signa- 
ture “Pay ” or  “Pay or  order.” 

3.  ^nalified^  the  words  “without  recourse”  being  used  after 
the  name  of  the  payee  in  the  indorsement. 

4.  Co7iditional^  a condition  being  stated,  as:  “Pay , 

unless  payment  forbidden  before  maturity.” 

5.  Restrictive^  as:  “Pay only.” 

The  blank  indorsement,  the  full  indorsement  and  the  general 
indorsement  are  practicallj' the  same;  each  entitles  the  holder 
of  the  note  to  the  money,  and  to  look  to  the  indorser  for  pay- 
ment if  the  maker  of  the  note  defaults.  It  has  even  been  held 
that  in  a general  indorsement  the  holder  had  the  right  to  fill  in 
the  words  “or  order”  if  he  saw  fit.  The  qualified  indorsement 
releases  the  indorser  from  any  liability  in  case  the  maker  of  the 
note  defaults.  The  conditional  and  restrictive  indorsement  are 
used  only  in  special  cases.  Each  indorser  is  severally  and  collect- 
ively liable  for  the  whole  amount  of  the  note  indorsed  if  it  is 

237 


LEGAL  ADVICE, 


dishonored,  provided  it  is  duly  protested  and  notice  given  to 
each.  The  indorser  looks  to  the  man  who  indorsed  it  before 
him,  and  so  back  to  the  original  maker  of  the  note.  As  soon  as 
a note  is  protested,  it  is  vitally  necessary  that  notice  should  be 
sent  to  each  person  interested  at  once. 

TO  BE  ON  THE  SAFE  SIDE,  it  is  well  to  see  to  it  that 
any  note  offered  for  negotiation — 

Is  dated  correctly; 

Specifies  the  amount  of  money  to  be  paid; 

Names  the  person  to  whom  it  is  to  be  paid; 

Includes  the  words  “or  order”  after  the  name  of  the  payee,  if 
it  is  desired  to  make  the  note  negotiable; 

Appoints  a place  where  the  payment  is  to  be  made; 

States  that  the  note  is  made  “for  value  received;” 

And  is  signed  by  the  maker  or  his  duly  authorized  representa- 
tive. 

In  some  States  phrases  are  required  in  the  body  of  the  note, 
such  as,  “without  defalcation  or  discount  ;”  but,  as  a general 
thing,  that  fact  is  understood  without  the  statement. 


Partnership. 

The  general  rule  is  that  every  person  of  sound  mind,  and  not 
otherwise  restrained  by  law,  may  enter  into  a contract  of  part- 
nership. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  partners  : 

1.  Ostensible  partners,  or  those  whose  names  are  made  public 
as  partners,  and  who  in  reality  are  such,  and  who  take  all  the 
benefits  and  risks. 

2.  Noininal  partners,  or  those  who  appear  before  the  public 
as  partners,  but  who  have  no  real  interest  in  the  business. 

3.  Dormant^  or  silent  partners,  or  those  whose  names  are 
not  known  or  do  not  appear  as  partners,  but  who,  nevertheless, 
have  an  interest  in  the  business., 

4.  Special^  or  limited  partners,  or  those  who  are  interested  in 
the  business  only  to  the  amount  of  the  capital  they  have  invested 
in  it. 

5.  General  partners,  who  manage  the  business,  while  the 
capital,  either  in  whole  or  in  part,  is  supplied  by  a special  part- 
ner or  partners.  They  are  liable  for  all  the  debts  and  contracts 
of  the  firm. 

A nominal  partner  renders  himself  liable  for  all  the  debts  and 
contracts  of  the  firm. 

A dormant  partner,  if  it  becomes  known  that  he  has  an  inter- 
est, whether  creditors  trusted  the  firm  on  his  account  or  not,  be- 
comes liable  equally  with  the  other  partners. 

The  regulations  concerning  special  or  limited  partnerships,  in 

238 


LEGAL  ADVICE. 


any  particular  State  where  recognized,  are  to  be  found  in  the 
statutes  of  such  State  ; and  strict  compliance  with  the  statutes 
is  necessary  in  order  to  avoid  incurring  the  responsibilities  at- 
taching to  the  position  of  general  partner. 

A person  who  lends  his  name  as  a partner,  or  who  suffers  his 
name  to  continue  in  the  firm  after  he  has  actually  ceased  to  be  a 
partner  thereof,  is  still  responsible  to  third  persons  as  a partner. 

A partner  may  buy  and  sell  partnership  effects  ; make  con- 
tracts in  reference  to  the  business  of  the  firm  ; pay  and  receive 
money  ; draw,  and  indorse,  and  accept  bills  and  notes  ; and  all 
acts  of  such  a nature,  even  though  they  be  upon  his  own  private 
account,  will  bind  the  other  partners,  if  connected  with  matters 
apparently  having  reference  to  the  business  of  the  firm,  and 
transacted  with  other  parties  ignorant  of  the  fact  that  such  deal- 
ings are  for  the  particular  partner’s  private  account.  The  repre- 
sentation or  misrepresentation  of  any  fact  made  in  any  partner- 
ship transaction  by  one  partner,  or  the  commission  of  any  fraud 
in  such  transaction,  will  bind  the  entire  firm,  even  though  the 
other  partners  may  have  no  connection  with,  or  knowledge  of 
the  same. 

If  a partner  sign  his  individual  name  to  negotiable  paper,  all 
the  partners  are  bound  thereby,  if  such  paper  appear  on  its  face 
to  be  on  partnership  account.  If  negotiable  paper  of  a firm  be 
given  by  one  partner  on  his  private  account,  and  in  the  course  of 
its  circulation  pass  into  the  hands  of  a hona  fide  holder  for  value, 
without  notice  or  knovv^ledge  of  the  fact  attending  its  creation, 
the  partnership  is  bound  thereby. 

One  partner  cannot  bind  the  firm  by  deed,  though  he  may  by 
deed  execute  an  ordinary  release  of  a debt  due  the  partnership. 

If  no  time  be  fixed  in  articles  of  copartnership  for  the  com- 
mencement thereof,  it  is  presumed  to  commence  from  the  date 
and  execution  of  the  articles.  If  no  precise  period  is  mentioned 
for  continuance,  a partner  may  withdraw  at  any  time,  and  dis- 
solve such  partnership  at  his  pleasure  ; and  even  if  a definite 
period  be  agreed  upon,  a partner  may,  by  giving  notice,  dissolve 
the  partnership  as  to  all  capacity  of  the  firm  to  bind  him  by  con- 
tracts thereafter  made.  The  withdrawing  partner  subjects 
himself,  however,  to  a claim  for  damages  by  reason  of  his 
breach  of  the  covenant. 

The  death  of  a partner  dissolves  the  partnership,  unless  there 
be  an  express  stipulation  that,  in  such  an  event,  the  representa- 
tives of  the  deceased  partner  may  continue  the  business  in  con- 
nection with  the  survivors,  for  the  benefit  of  the  widow  and 
children. 

A partnership  is  dissolved  by  operation  of  law  ; by  a voluntary 
and  bona  fide  assignment  by  any  partner  of  his  interest  therein  ; 

239 


LEGAL  ADVICE. 


by  the  bankruptcy  or  death  of  any  of  the  partners  ; or  by  a war 
between  the  countries  of  which  the  partners  are  subjects. 

Immediately  after  a dissolution,  notice  of  the  same  should  be 
published  in  the  papers,  and  a special  notice  sent  to  every  person 
who  has  had  dealings  with  the  firm.  If  these  precautions  be  not 
taken,  each  partner  will  still  continue  liable  for  the  acts  of  the 
others  to  all  persons  who  have  had  no  notice  of  such  dissolution. 

DON’T  enter  into  a partnership  without  carefully  drawn 
articles,  and  don’t  sign  the  articles  until  the  partnership  funds 
are  on  deposit. 

DON’T  forget  that  a partner  may  be  called  upon  to  make 
good  partnership  losses  with  his  individual  property,  and  that 
each  partner  may  be  held  for  the  acts  of  the  other  partners  as 
well  as  for  his  own. 

DON’T  enter  a firm  already  established  unless  you  are  will- 
ing to  become  responsible  for  its  debts. 

DON’T  do  anything  out  of  the  usual  run  of  business  without 
the  consent  of  your  partners. 

DON’T  mix  private  matters  with  partnership  affairs,  and 
don’t  continue  in  a partnership  where  trust  and  confidence  are 
lacking. 

DON’T  continue  a partnership  after  expiration  of  articles, 
and  do  not  make  any  change  without  due  public  notice. 

DON’T  dissolve  a partnership  without  due  public  notice  or 
without  designating  a member  to  settle  all  matters  outstanding. 


Agency  and  Attorney. 

By  agency  is  meant  the  substitution  of  one  person  by  and  for 
another,  the  former  to  transact  business  for  the  latter.  An 
agency  may  be  established  by  imflication — an  express  agree- 
ment with  a person  that  he  is  to  become  the  agent  of  another 
not  being  necessary — or  verbally^  or  by  'writing.  A verbal  crea- 
tion of  agency  suffices  to  authorize  the  agent  to  make  a contract 
even  in  cases  where  such  contract  must  be  in  writing. 

Agency  is  of  three  kinds  : special,  general  and  professional. 
A special  agency  is  an  authority  exercised  for  a special  purpose. 
If  a special  agent  exceed  the  limits  of  his  authority,  his  principal 
is  not  bound  by  his  acts. 

A general  agency  authorizes  the  transaction  of  all  business  of 
a particular  kind,  or  growing  out  of  a particular  employment. 
The  principal  will  be  bound  by  the  acts  of  a general  agent, 
though  the  latter  act  contrary  to  private  instructions,  provided 
he  keep,  at  the  same  time,  within  the  general  limits  of  his  au- 
thority. 

Professional  agents  are  those  licensed  by  the  proper  authority 
to  transact  certain  kinds  of  business  for  a compensation.  The 

240 


LEGAL  ADVICE. 


following  are  among  this  class  of  agents:  i.  Attorneys.  2. 
Brokers.  3.  Factors.  4.  Auctioneers.  5.  Masters  of  .Ships. 

In  regard  to  the  subject  of  an  agency,  the  general  rule  is,  that 
whatever  a man  may  do  in  his  own  right  he  may  also  transact 
through  another.  Things  of  a personal  nature,  implying  personal 
confidence  on  the  part  of  the  person  possessing  them,  cannot  be 
delegated. 

Infants,  married  women,  lunatics,  idiots,  aliens,  belligerents, 
and  persons  incapable  of  making  legal  contracts,  cannot  act  as 
principals  in  the  appointment  of  agents.  Infants  and  married 
women  may,  however,  become  principals  in  certain  cases. 

Agency  may  be  terminated  in  two  ways  : (i)  by  the  act  of 
the  principal  or  agent  ; (2)  by  operation  of  law.  In  the  latter 
case,  the  termination  of  the  agency  is  effected  by  lapse  of  time, 
by  completion  of  the  subject-matter  of  the  agency,  by  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  subject-matter,  or  by  the  insanity,  bankruptcy  or 
death  of  either  party. 

DON’T  do  through  another  what  would  be  illegal  for  you  to 
do  yourself. 

DON’T  lose  any  time  in  repudiating  illegal  acts  of  your  agent. 

DON’T  make  an  illegal  act  of  your  agent’s  j^our  own  by  ac- 
cepting the  benefit  thereof. 

DON’T  transact  business  through  an  agent  unless  he  can 
show  that  he  stands  in  his  principal’s  stead  in  the  matter  in 
hand. 

DON’T,  as  agent,  appoint  sub-agents  without  the  consent  of 
your  principal. 

DON’T  go  beyond  your  authoritj'-  in  an  agency  unless  you 
are  willing  to  become  personally  responsible. 

DON’T  accept  an  agency,  or  act  as  an  attorney  in  fact,  in  com- 
plicated matters  unless  your  powers  are  clearly  defined  in  writing. 

Landlord  and  Tenant. 

Leases  for  one  year  or  less  need  no  written  agreement.  Leases 
for  more  than  a year  must  be  in  writing;  if  for  life,  signed, 
sealed,  and  witnessed  in  the  same  manner  as  any  other  import- 
ant document. 

Leases  for  over  three  years  must  be  recorded.  No  particidar 
form  is  necessary. 

If  no  agreement  in  writing  for  more  than  a year  can  be  pro- 
duced, the  tenant  holds  the  property  from  year  to  year  at  the 
will  of  the  landlord.  If  there  is  no  agreement  as  to  time,  the 
tenant  as  a rule  holds  from  year  to  j^ear. 

A tenancy  at  will  may  be  terminated  by  giving  the  tenant  one 
month’s  notice  in  writing,  requiring  him  to  remove  from  the 
premises  occupied. 


241 


LEGAL  ADVICE, 

A tenant  is  not  responsible  for  taxes,  unless  it  is  so  stated  in 
the  lease. 

The  tenant  may  underlet  as  much  of  the  property  as  he  de- 
sires,  unless  it  is  expressly  forbidden  in  the  lease.  Tenants  at 
will  cannot  underlet. 

A married  woman  cannot  lease  her  property  under  the  com- 
mon law,  but  this  prohibition  is  removed  by  statute  in  most  of 
the  States.  A husband  cannot  make  a lease  which  will  bind  his 
wife’s  property  after  his  death. 

A lease  made  by  a minor  is  not  binding  after  the  minor  has 
attained  his  majority.  It  binds  the  lessee,  however,  unless  the 
minor  should  release  him.  Should  the  minor  receive  rent  after 
attaining  his  majority,  the  lease  will  be  thereby  ratified.  A lease 
given  by  a guardian  will  not  extend  beyond  the  majority  of  the 
ward. 

A new  lease  renders  void  a former  lease. 

In  case  there  are  no  writings,  the  tenancy  begins  from  the  day 
possession  is  taken  ; where  there  are  writings  and  the  time  of 
commencement  is  not  stated,  the  tenancy  will  be  held  to  com- 
mence from  the  date  of  said  writings. 

Leases  on  mortgaged  property,  whereon  the  mortgage  was 
given  prior  to  the  lease,  terminate  when  the  mortgage  is  fore- 
closed. 

Where  a tenant  assigns  his  lease,  even  with  the  landlord’s  con- 
sent, he  will  remain  liable  for  the  rent  unless  his  lease  is  sur- 
rendered or  cancelled. 

There  are  many  special  features  of  the  law  of  landlord  and 
tenant  in  relation  to  agricultural  tenancy.  Generally  an  outgo- 
ing tenant  cannot  sell  or  take  away  the  manure.  A tenant 
whose  estate  has  terminated  by  an  uncertain  event  which  he 
could  neither  foresee  nor  control  is  entitled  to  the  annual  crop 
which  he  sowed  while  his  estate  continued,  by  the  law  of  emble- 
ments. He  may  also,  in  certain  cases,  take  the  emblements  or 
annual  profits  of  the  land  after  his  tenancy  has  ended,  and, 
unless  restricted  by  some  stipulation  to  the  contrary,  may  re- 
move such  fixtures  as  he  has  erected  during  his  occupation  for 
convenience,  profit  or  comfort;  for,  in  general,  what  a tenant 
has  added  he  may  remove,  if  he  can  do  so  without  injury  to  the 
premises,  unless  he  has  actually  built  it  in  so  as  to  make  it  an 
integral  part  of  what  was  there  originally. 

The  following  are  immovable  fixtures  : Agricultural  erec- 
tions, fold-yard  walls,  cart  house,  barns  fixed  in  the  ground, 
beast  house,  carpenter  shop,  fuel  house,  pigeon  house,  pineries 
substantially  fixed,  wagon  house,  box  borders  not  belonging  to  a 
gardener  by  trade,  flowers,  trees,  hedges,  ale-house  bar,  dress- 
ers, partitions,  locks  and  keys,  benches  affixed  to  the  house, 
" 242 


LEGAL  ADVICE. 


statue  erected  as  an  ornament  to  grounds,  sun  dial,  chimney 
piece  not  ornamental,  closets  affixed  to  the  house,  conduits, 
conservatory,  substantially  affixed,  doors,  fruit  trees  if  a 
tenant  be  not  a nurseryman  by  trade,  glass  windows,  hearths, 
millstones,  looms  substantially  affixed  to  the  floor  of  a factory, 
threshing  machines  fixed  by  bolts  and  screws  to  posts  let  into 
the  ground. 

DON’T  occupy  premises  until  a written  lease  is  in  your  pos- 
session, and  don’t  depend  on  promises  of  a landlord  unless  they 
are  part  of  such  lease. 

DON’T  accept  a married  woman  as  tenant  unless  the  law  of 
the  State  permit  her  to  make  an  executory  contract. 

DON’T  think  that  you  can  legally  eject  sub-tenants  unless 
you  have  given  them  notice  of  the  tenant’s  forfeiture  of  his  lease. 

DON’T  make  such  improvements  in  premises  occupied  by 
you  as  the  law  would  regard  as  immovable  fixtures,  unless  you 
are  willing  to  turn  them  over  to  the  landlord  when  your  lease 
expires.  A building  erected  on  foundations  sunk  into  the  ground 
would  become  part  of  the  realtj^  and  thus  belong  to  the  landlord. 

DON’T  think,  however,  that  you  have  no  right  to  remove 
trade  fixtures  erected  by  you. 

DON’T  accept  less  than  thirty  days’  notice  when  you  rent  by 
the  month. 

DON’T  forget  that  where  premises  are  let  for  illegal  use  the 
law  will  not  aid  you  in  collecting  arrears  for  rent. 

Law  Relating  to  Farms,  Etc. 

In  a deed  to  agricultural  property  the  boundaries  should  be 
clearly  determined.  The  question,  What  does  the  farmer  get.^  is 
answered  by  these  boundaries,  and  the  deed  to  a farm  always  in- 
cludes the  dwelling  houses,  barns  and  other  improvements 
thereon  belonging  to  the  grantor,  even  though  these  are  not 
mentioned.  It  also  conveys  all  the  fences  standing  on  the  farm, 
but  all  might  not  think  it  also  included  the  fencing-stuff,  posts, 
rails,  etc.,  which  had  once  been  used  in  the  fence,  but  had  been 
taken  down  and  piled  up  for  future  use  again  in  the  same  place.  But 
new  fencing  material,  just  bougjit,  and  never  attached  to  the 
soil,  would  not  pass.  So  piles  of  hop  poles,  stored  away,  if  once 
used  on  the  land,  and  intended  to  be  again  so  used,  have  been 
considered  a part  of  it,  but  loose  boards  or  scaffold  poles,  merely 
laid  across  the  beams  of  a barn  and  never  fastened  to  it,  would 
not  be,  and  the  seller  of  the  farm  might  take  them  away.  Stand- 
ing trees,  of  course,  also  pass,  as  part  of  the  land;  so  do  trees 
blown  down  or  cut  down,  and  still  left  in  the  woods  where  they 
fell,  but  not  if  cut  and  corded  up  for  sale;  the  wood  has  then  be- 
come personal  property. 


243 


LEGAL  ADVICE. 

If  there  be  any  manure  in  the  barnyard  or  in  the  compost  heap 
on  the  field,  ready  for  immediate  use  the  buyer  ordinarily,  in 
the  absence  of  any  contrary  agreement,  takes"  that  also  as  be* 
longing  to  the  farm,  though  it  might  not  be  so  if  the  owner  had 
previously  sold  it  to  some  other  party,  and  had  collected  it  to- 
gether in  a heap  by  itself,  for  such  an  act  might  be  a technical 
severance  from  the  soil,  and  so  convert  real  into  personal  es- 
tate; and  even  a lessee  of  a farm  could  take  away  the^manure 
made  on  the  place  while  he  was  in  occupation.  Growing  crops 
also  pass  by  the  deed  of  a farm  unless  they  are  expressly  re- 
served, and  when  it  is  not  intended  to  convey  those  it  should  be 
so  stated  in  the  deed  itself;  a mere  oral  agreement  to  that  effect 
would  not  be,  in  most  States,  valid  in  law.  Another  mode  is  to 
stipulate  that  possession  is  not  to  be  given  until  some  future  day, 
in  which  case  the  crops  or  manures  may  be  removed  before  that 
time. 

An  adjoining  road  is,  to  its  middle,  owned  by  the  farmer 
whose  land  is  bound,  unless  there  are  reservations  to  the  con- 
trary in  the  deeds  through  which  he  derives  title.  But  this  own- 
ership is  subject  to  the  right  of  the  public  to  the  use  of  the 
road. 

If  a tree  grows  so  as  to  come  over  the  land  of  a neighbor,  the 
latter  may  cut  aw'ay  the  parts  which  so  come  over,  for  he  owns 
his  land  and  all  that  is  above  or  below  it.  If  it  be  a fruit  tree  he 
may  cut  every  branch  or  twig  which  comes  over  his  land,  but  he 
cannot  touch  the  fruit  which  falls  to  the  land.  The  owner  of 
the  tree  may  enter  peaceably  upon  the  land  of  the  neighbor 
and  take  up  the  branches  and  fruit. 


Lien  Laws. 

Any  one  who,  as  contractor,  sub-contractor  or  laborer,  per- 
forms any  work,  or  furnishes  anj^  materials,  in  pursuance  of,  or 
in  conformity  with,  any  agreement  or  contract  with  the  owner, 
lessee,  agent  or  one  in  possession  of  the  property,  toward  the 
erection,  altering,  improving  or  repairing  of  any  building,  shall 
have  a lien  for  the  value  of  such  labor  or  materials  on  the  build- 
ing or  land  on  which  it  stands  to  the  extent  of  the  right,  title 
and  interest  of  the  owner,  lessee  or  person  in  possession  at  the 
time  of  the  claimant’s  filing  hi?  notice  wdth  the  clerk  of  the 
county  court.  Such  lien  is  called  a mechanic’s  lien. 

The  notice  should  be  filed  within  thirty  days  after  comple- 
tion of  the  work  or  the  furnishing  of  the  materials,  and  should 
state  the  residence  of  the  claimant,  the  amount  claimed,  from 
whom  due,  when  due,  and  to  whom  due,  the  name  of  the  person 
against  whom  claimed,  the  name  of  the  owner,  lessee  or  person 
in  possession  of  the  premises,  with  a brief  description  of  the  latter. 

244 


LEGAL  ADVICE, 


Liens  cease  in  one  year  after  the  filing  of  the  notice,  unless  an 
action  is  begun,  or  the  lien  is  continued  by  an  order  of  court. 

The  following  classes  of  persons  are  generally  entitled  to  lien: 
1.  Bailees,  who  may  perform  labor  and  services,  on  the  thing 
bailed,  at  the  request  of  the  bailor.  2.  Innkeepers,  upon  the 
baggage  of  guests  they  have  accommodated.  3.  Common  carri- 
ers, upon  goods  carried,  for  the  amount  of  their  freight  and  dis- 
bursements. 4.  Vendors,  on  the  goods  sold  for  payment  of  the 
price  where  no  credit  has  been  expressly  promised  or  implied. 
5.  Agents,  upon  goods  of  their  principals,  for  advancements  for 
the  benefit  of  the  latter.  6.  All  persons  are  entitled  to  the 
right  of  lien  who  are  compelled  by  law  to  receive  property  and 
bestow’  labor  or  expense  on  the  same. 

The  right  of  lien  may  be  w^aived:  i.  By  express  contract.  2. 
By  neglect.  3.  By  new  agreement.  4.  By  allowing  change  of 
'possession.  5.  By  surrendering  possession. 

The  manner  of  the  enforcement  of  a lien,  whether  it  be  an  inn- 
keeper’s, agent’s,  carrier’s,  factor’s,  etc.,  depends  wholly  upon  the 
nature  and  character  of  the  lien. 

DON’T  purchase  real  estate  unless  the  records  have  been 
thoroughly  searched  for  all  liens  known  to  the  law,  or  until  all 
notices  of  action  against  the  same  have  been  discharged. 

DON’T  think  that  you  have  no  right  to  sell  perishable  property 
on  which  you  have  a lien.  Your  lien  will  attach  to  the  proceeds. 

DON’T  foreclose  a lien  without  proper  notice. 

DON’T  make  payments  to  a contractor  before  you  have  full 
knowledge  of  all  liens  filed. 

DON’T  forget  that  liens  take  precedence  according  to  pri- 
ority, and  that  interest  always  runs  on  a judgment. 


Deeds — Transfer  of  Property. 

A deed  is  a writing  by  wLich  lands,  tenements  or  heredita- 
ments are  conveyed,  sealed  and  delivered.  It  must  be  written  or 
printed  on  parchment  or  paper;  the  parties  must  be  competent 
to  contract;  there  must  be  a proper  object  to  grant;  a sufficient 
consideration;  an  agreement  properly  declared;  if  desired,  it 
must  have  been  read  to  the  party  executing  it;  it  must  be  signed 
and  sealed;  attested  by  witnesses,  in  the  absence  of  any  statute 
regulation  to  the  contrary;  properly  acknowledged  before  a 
competent  officer;  and  recorded  within  the  time  and  in  the  office 
prescribed  by  the  State  wherein  executed. 

The  maker  of  a deed  is  the  grarilor ; the  party  to  whom  it  is 
delivered,  graii tee.  If  the  grantor  have  a wife,  she  must,  in 
the  absence  of  a statute  to  the  contrary,  sign  and  acknowledge 
the  deed;  otherwise,  after  the  husband’s  death,  she  may  claim 
the  use  of  one-third,  during  her  life. 

245 


LEGAL  ADVICE, 


By  ^genersil  warranty  deed  the  grantor  covenants  to  insure  the 
lands  against  all  persons  whatsoever;  by  a special  warranty  deed 
he  warrants  only  against  himself  and  those  claiming  under  him. 
In  deeds  made  by  executors,  administrators  or  guardians  there  is 
generally  no  warranty.  A quit-claim  deed  releases  all  the  interest 
which  the  grantor  has  in  the  land,  whatever  it  may  be. 

A deed  of  trust  is  given  to  a person  called  a trustee,  to  hold  in 
fee  simple,  or  otherwise,  for  the  use  of  some  other  person  who  is 
entitled  to  the  proceeds,  profits  or  use. 

A deed  may  be  made  void  by  alterations  made  in  it  after  its 
execution;  by  the  disagreement  of  the  parties  whose  concurrence 
is  necessary;  or  by  the  judgment  of  a competent  tribunal. 

Interlineations  or  erasures  in  a deed,  made  before  signing, 
should  be  mentioned  in  a note,  and  witnessed  in  proper  form. 
After  the  acknowledgment  of  a deed  the  parties  have  no  right  to 
make  the  slightest  alteration.  An  alteration  of  a deed  after 
execution,  if  made  in  favor  of  the  grantee,  vitiates  the  deed.  If 
altered  before  delivery,  such  alteration  destroys  the  deed  as  to 
the  party  altering  it. 

Abstracts  of  title  are  brief  accounts  of  all  the  deeds  upon 
which  titles  rest,  and  judgments  and  instruments  affecting  such 
titles. 

The  evidences  of  title  are  usually  conveyances,  wills,  orders 
or  decrees  of  courts,  judgments,  judicial  sales,  sales  by  offi- 
cers appointed  by  law,  acts  of  the  Legislature  and  of  Con- 
gress. 

DON’T  accept  a deed  unless  all  the  following  conditions  are 
complied  with:  i.  It  must  be  signed,  sealed  and  witnessed.  2. 
Interlineations  must  be  mentioned  in  the  certificate  of  acknowl- 
edgment. 3.  All  the  partners  must  join  in  a deed  from  a part- 
nership. 4.  A deed  from  a corporation  should  bear  the  corpo- 
rate seal  and  be  signed  by  officers  designated  in  the  resolution 
of  the  directors  authorizing  it.  5.  A deed  from  a married 
woman  should  be  joined  in  by  the  husband.  6.  A deed  from  an 
executor  should  recite  his  power  of  sale.  7*  The  consideration 
must  be  expressed. 

DON’T  deed  property  to  your  wife  direct.  A deed  to  your 
wife  does  not  cut  off  obligations  contracted  previously. 

DON’T  pay  consideration  money  on  a conveyance  of  real 
estate  until  the  record  has  been  searched  to  the  moment  of  pass- 
ing title,  and  unless  you  know  of  your  own  knowledge  that  no 
judgments,  mortgages  or  tax  liens  are  outstanding  against  the 
property. 

DON’T  delay  in  having  a deed  or  mortgage  recorded. 

DON’T  attempt  to  give  a better  title  than  you  have  your- 
self. 


246 


Mortgages. 

A mortgage  is  a conveyance  of  property,  either  real  or  per- 
sonal, to  secure  payment  of  a debt.  When  the  debt  is  paid  the 
mortgage  becomes  void  and  of  no  value.  In  real  estate  mort- 
gages the  person  giving  the  mortgage  retains  possession  of  the 
property,  receives  all  the  debts  and  other  profits,  and  pays  all 
taxes  and  other  expenses.  The  instrument  must  be  acknowl- 
edged, like  a deed,  before  a proper  public  officer,  and  recorded  in 
the  office  of  the  county  clerk  or  recorder,  or  whatever  officer’s 
duty  it  is  to  record  such  instruments.  All  mortgages  must  con- 
tain a redemption  clause  and  must  be  signed  and  sealed.  The 
time  when  the  debt  becomes  due,  to  secure  which  the  mortgage  is 
given,  must  be  plainly  set  forth  and  the  property  conveyed 
must  be  clearly  described,  located  and  scheduled. 

Some  mortgages  contain  a clause  permitting  the  sale  of  the 
property  without  decree  of  court  when  a default  is  made  in  the 
payment  either  of  the  principal  sum  or  the  interest. 

A foreclosure  is  a statement  that  the  property  is  forfeited  and 
m.ust  be  sold. 

When  a mortgage  is  assigned  to  another  person,  it  must  be 
for  a valuable  consideration;  and  the  note  or  notes  which  it  was 
given  to  secure  must  be  given  at  the  same  time. 

If  the  mortgaged  property,  when  foreclosed  and  brought  to 
sale,  brings  more  money  than  is  needed  to  satisfy  the  debt,  inter- 
est and  costs,  the  surplus  must  be  paid  to  the  mortgagor. 

Satisfaction  of  mortgages  upon  real  or  personal  property  may 
be  either — 

1.  By  an  entry  upon  the  margin  of  the  record  thereof,  signed  by 
the  mortgagee  or  his  attorney,  assignee  or  personal  representa- 
tive, acknowledging  the  satisfaction  of  the  mortgage,  in  the 
presence  of  the  recording  officer;  or — 

2.  By  a receipt  indorsed  upon  the  mortgage,  signed  by  the 
mortgagee,  his  agent  or  attorney,  which  receipt  may  be  entered 
upon  the  margin  of  the  record;  or — 

3.  It  may  be  discharged  upon  the  record  thereof  whenever 
there  is  presented  to  the  proper  officer  an  instrument  acknowl- 
edging the  satisfaction  of  such  mortgage,  executed  by  the  mort- 
gagee, his  duly  authorized  attorney  in  fact,  assignee  or  personal 
representative,  and  acknowledged  in  the  same  manner  as  other 
instruments  affecting  real  estate. 

Chattel  mortgages  are  mortgages  on  personal  property.  Most 
of  the  rules  applicable  to  mortgages  on  real  estate  apply  also  to 
those  on  personal  property,  though  in  some  States  there  are 
laws  regulating  personal  mortgages.  Any  instrument  will 
answer  the  purpose  of  a chattel  mortgage  which  would  answer 
as  a bill  of  sale,  with  a clause  attached  providing  for  the  avoid- 
ance of  the  mortgage  when  the  debt  is  paid. 

A chattel  mortgage  will  not  cover  property  subsequently  ac- 

247 


LEGAL  ADVICE. 


quired  bj  the  mortgagor.  Mortgages  of  personal  property 
should  contain  a clause  providing  for  the  equity  of  redemption. 
A mortgagee  may  sell  or  transfer  his  mortgage  to  another 
party  for  a consideration,  but  such  property  cannot  be  seized  or 
sold  until  the  expiration  of  the  period  for  which  the  mortgage 
was  given.  Mortgages  given  with  intent  to  defraud  creditors 
are  void. 

DON’T  lose  any  time  in  having  a mortgage  properly 
recorded. 

DON’T  pay  installments  on  chattel  mortgages  unless  the 
same  are  indorsed  thereon. 

DON’T  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  a chattel  mortgage  is  a con* 
ditional  bill  of  sale. 

DON’T  accept  a chattel  mortgage  the  term  whereof  is  for 
more  than  a year. 

DON’T  neglect  to  have  a chattel  mortgage  signed,  sealed  and 
witnessed,  and  don’t  fail  to  see  to  it  that  the  schedule  contains 
every  article  embraced  under  it. 

DON’T  fail  to  see  to  it  that  goods  or  chattels  mortgaged  to 
you  are  properly  insured. 

DON’T  suppose  that  a chattel  mortgage  is  valid  when  the 
debt  to  be  secured  by  it  is  not. 

DON’T  give  a chattel  mortgage  payable  on  demand  unless 
you  are  prepared  to  forfeit  the  chattels  at  any  moment. 

DON’T  think  that  destruction  by  fire  or  otherwise  of  the 
chattels  mortgaged  wipes  out  the  debt. 

DON’T  forget  that  foreclosure  in  the  case  of  a chattel  mort- 
gage is  unnecessary  except  to  cut  off  claims  of  other  creditors. 


Assignments. 

An  assignment  is  a transfer  of  property  made  in  writing.  In 
effect  it  is  passing  to  another  person  all  of  one’s  title  or  interest 
in  any  sort  of  real  or  personal  property,  rights,  actions  or 
estates.  However,  some  things  are  not  assignable;  an  officer’s 
pay  or  commission,  a judge’s  salary,  fishing  claims.  Government 
bounties,  or  claims  arising  out  of  frauds  or  torts.  Personal 
trusts  cannot  be  assigned,  as  a guardianship  or  the  right  of  a 
master  in  his  apprentice. 

Unlike  many  other  legal  devices  the  holder  of  an  assignment 
is  not  bound  to  show  that  a valuable  consideration  was  given. 
The  owner  of  a cause  of  action  may  give  it  away  if  he  pleases, 
and  in  the  positive  absence  of  evidence  to  the  contrary  the 
court  will  presume  that  the  assignment  was  for  a sufficient  con- 
sideration. 

Proof  will  be  called  for  only  when  it  appears  that  the  assign- 
ment was  a mere  sham  or  fraudulent.  No  formality  is  required 

248 


LEGAL  ADVICE, 


by  law  in  an  assignment.  Any  instrument  between  the  con- 
tracting parties  which  goes  to  show  their  intention  to  pass  the 
property  from  one  to  another  will  be  sufficient.  It  may  be 
proved,"  for  instance,  by  the  payee  of  a note,  that  he  indorsed  (or 
delivered  without  indorsement)  the  note  to  the  assignee,  and 
this  is  sufficient  evidence  of  assignment. 

In  every  assignment  of  an  instrument,  even  not  negotiable, 
the  assignee  impliedly  warrants  the  validity  of  the  instrument 
and  the  obligation  of  the  third  party  to  pay  it.  He  warrants 
that  there  is  no  legal  defense  against  its  collection  arising  out  of 
his  connection  with  the  parties;  that  all  parties  were  legally 
able  to  contract,  and  that  the  amount  is  unpaid. 

An  assignment  carries  with  it  all  the  collateral  securities  and 
guaranties  of  the  original  debt,  even  though  they  are  not  men- 
tioned in  the  instrument. 

Where  property  is  assigned  for  the  benefit  of  creditors,  its  act- 
ual transfer  to  the  assignee  must  be  made  immediately.  When 
an  assignment  is  made  under  the  common  law,  the  assignor  may 
prefer  certain  creditors;  but  in  a State  where  this  sort  of  an  as- 
signment is  governed  by  statute,  no  preference  can  be  shown. 
An  assignment  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  covers  all  of  the  as- 
signor’s property,  wherever  or  whatever  it  may  be,  that  is  not 
exempt  from  execution. 

When  insured  property  is  sold  the  insurance  policy  should  be 
assigned.  This  can  only  be  done  with  the  consent  of  the  in- 
surer, and  that  consent  must  be  at  once  obtained. 

Correct  schedules  of  the  property  assigned  should  accompany 
and  be  attached  to  every  assignment. 


Inns,  Hotels  and  Boarding-houses. 

An  inn,  or  hotel,  is  a place  of  entertainment  for  travelers.  If 
an  innkeeper  opens  his  house  for  travelers,  it  is  an  implied  en- 
gagement to  entertain  all  persons  who  travel  that  way,  and  upon 
this  universal  assumption  an  action  will  lie  against  him  for 
damages  if  he,  without  good  reason,  refuses  to  admit  a trav- 
eler. 

Innkeepers  are  responsible  for  the  safe  custody  of  the  goods  of 
their  guests,  and  can  limit  their  liability  only  by  an  express 
agreement  or  special  contract  with  their  guests;  but  if  goods  are 
lost  through  negligence  of  the  owner  himself  the  innkeeper’s 
liability  ceases.  An  innkeeper  may  retain  the  goods  of  his  guest 
until  the  amount  of  the  guest’s  bill  has  been  paid. 

A boarding-house  is  not  an  inn,  nor  is  a coftee-liouse  or  eat- 
ing-room. A boarding-house  keeper  has  no  lien  on  the  goods  ol 
a boarder  except  by  special  agreement,  nor-is  he  responsible  for 
their  safe  custody.  He  is  liable,  however,  for  loss  caused  by  the 

249 


LEGAL  ADVICE, 

negligence  of  his  servants.  An  innkeeper  is  liable  for  loss  with- 
out such  negligence.  

Bonds. 

A written  instrument,  admitting  an  obligation  on  the  part  of 
the  maker  to  pay  a certain  sum  of  money  to  another  specified 
person  at  a fixed  time,  for  a valuable  consideration,  is  called  a 
bond.  The  obligor  is  the  one  giving  the  bond;  the  beneficiary  is 
called  the  obligee.  This  definition  applies  to  all  bonds,  but  gen- 
erally these  instruments  are  given  to  guarantee  the  performance 
or  non-performance  of  certain  acts  by  the  obligor,  which  being 
done  or  left  undone,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  bond  becomes  void, 
but  if  the  conditions  are  broken  it  remains  in  full  force.  As  a 
rule,  the  bond  is  made  out  for  a sum  twice  the  amount  of  any 
debt  which  is  apt  to  be  incurred  by  the  obligor  under  its  con- 
ditions, the  statement  being  set  forth  that  the  sum  named  is  the 
penalty,  as  liquidated  or  settled  damages,  in  the  event  of  the 
failure  of  the  obligor  to  carry  out  the  conditions. 

An  act  of  Providence,  whereby  the  accomplishment  of  a bond 
is  rendered  impossible,  relieves  the  obligor  of  all  liability. 

A bond  for  the  payment  of  money  differs  from  a promissory 
note  only  in  having  a seal. 


Bills  of  Sale. 

A bill  of  sale  is  a formal  written  conveyance  of  personal  prop- 
erty. If  the  property  is  delivered  when  sold,  or  if  part  of  the 
purchase  money  is  paid,  a written  instrument  is  not  necessary  to 
make  the  conveyance,  but  it  is  convenient  evidence  of  the  trans- 
fer of  title.  But,  to  protect  the  interests  of  the  purchaser 
against  the  creditors  of  the  seller,  the  bill  is  not  sufficient  of 
itself;  there  should  also  be  a delivery  of  the  property.  If  an  act- , 
ual  and  continued  change  of  possession  does  not  accompany 
the  sale  R is  void  as  against  the  creditors  of  the  seller  and  subse- 
quent purchasers  and  mortgagees  in  good  faith,  unless  the  buyer 
can  show  that  his  purchase  was  made  in  good  faith,  without  in- 
tent to  defraud,  and  that  there  was  some  good  reason  for  leav- 
ing the  property  in  the  hands  of  the  seller. 


Guaranty 

Is  an  assurance  made  by  a second  partj^  that  his  principal  will 
perform  some  specific  act.  For  instance,  A gives  B a note,  and 
C by  indorsing  the  instrument  guarantees  to  B that  A will  pay 
it  at  maturitj^  C is  the  guarantor.  His  liability  is  special,  and 
if  B renews  the  note  when  it  becomes  due  he  is  no  longer  liable. 
A guaranty  for  collection  is  a very  different  thing  from  a guar- 
anty of  payment.  The  first  warrants  that  the  money  is  collect- 

250 


LEGAL  ADVICE. 


ible;  the  latter,  that  it  will  be  paid  at  maturity.  In  the  first  case 
the  party  guaranteed  must  be  able  to  prove  that  due  diligence 
was  employed  in  attempting  to  collect  the  money;  in  the  second, 
no  such  proof  is  necessary.  The  only  form  necessary  in  guaran- 
teeing a note  is  writing  one’s  name  across  the  back  of  it, — a pro- 
cess commonly  called  indorsing. 


Corporations. 

Several  persons  joining  together  for  the  accomplishment  of 
any  business  or  social  purpose  can  legally  organize  themselves 
into  a corporation,  a form  of  partnership  which  combines  the 
resources  of  all,  and  yet  gives  a limited  pecuniary  liability, 
amounting  only  to  the  amount  of  stock  owned  by  each  stock- 
holder. In  the  States,  the  legislature  of  each  Commonwealth 
enjoys  the  power  of  regulating  the  corporations,  and  in  the  Terri- 
tories this  power  is,  of  course,  vested  in  the  General  Government. 
The  actual  cost  of  organization  amounts  to  something  less  than 
$10,  most  of  which  is  in  fees  to  the  Secretary  of  State.  When 
the  stock  has  been  subscribed  a meeting  is  called,  and  each  share- 
holder casts  a vote  for  every  share  which  he  owns  or  holds  a 
proxy  for,  for  each  person  who  is  to  be  elected  director,  or  he 
may  give  one  director  as  many  votes  as  the  number  of  shares  he 
is  voting,  multiplied  by  the  number  of  directors  to  be  elected, 
amounts  to.  or  distribute  his  votes  as  he  chooses.  Thus,  if  he 
owns  ten  shares  of  stock  and  there  are  six  directors  to  be  elected, 
he  has  sixty  votes,  which  he  can  give,  either  ten  for  each  director, 
or  twenty  for  each  of  three,  or  sixty  for  one,  or  in  any  other  way 
that  he  sees  fit,  sq  that  his  whole  vote  will  not  be  more  than  sixty 
votes.  These  directors  meet  as  soon  after  the  election  as  pos- 
sible and  choose  a president,  vice-president,  secretary  and  treas- 
urer, whereupon  the  corporation  is  ready  for  business. 

The  law  in  all  the  States  on  the  subject  of  incorporating  com- 
panies is  very  similar,  and  the  necessary  forms  are  to  be  obtained 
usually  from  the  Secretary  of  State. 


Wills  and  How  to  Make  Them. 

Every  description  of  property,  whether  real  or  personal,  may 
be  given  by  will.  In  the  case  of  persons  dying  owing  debts, 
however,  the  law  gives  to  the  executors  sufficient  of  the  personal 
property  of  the  deceased  to  pay  off  all  existing  indebtedness, 
irrespective  of  the  terms  of  the  will;  and  where  the  personal 
property  is  not  sufficient  for  this  purpose,  real  property  may  be 
so  appropriated. 

Property  may  be  bequeathed  by  will  to  all  persons,  including 
married  women,  infants,  lunatics,  idiots,  etc. 

Wills  may  be  made  by  any  person  not  • disqualified  by  age  or 

251 


LEGAL  ADVICE. 


mental  incapacity.  Generalh^  speaking,  a person  must  have  at- 
tained the  age  of  twentj^-one  years  before  he  or  she  can  make 
a valid  will  of  lands,  and  the  same  age,  in  many  States,  is  re- 
quired for  a will  of  solely  personal  property. 

In  New  York  males  of  eighteen  and  females  of  sixteen  are 
competent  to  bequeath  personal  property.  “Sound  and  disposing 
mind  and  memory”  are  always  essential  to  the  validity  of  any 
will.  For  this  reason,  idiots,  lunatics,  intoxicated  persons  (dur- 
ing intoxication),  and  persons  of  unsound  or  weak  minds,  are 
incompetent  to  make  wills.  A will  procured  by  fraud  is  also 
invalid,  although  the  testator  be  fully  competent  to  make  a valid 
will.  All  wills  must  be  in  writing,  except  those  made  by  soldiers  in 
active  service  during  war,  and  by  sailors  while  at  sea.  Such 
persons  may  make  a verbal  or  7iu7tcufative  will,  under  certain 
restrictions,  as  to  witnesses,  etc.  No  particular  form  of  words 
is  required. 

A valid  will  must  be  subscribed  or  signed  by  the  testator,  or 
some  one  for  him,  in  his  presence,  and  at  his  request.  The  sig- 
nature must  be  affixed  in  the  presence  of  each  of  the  witnesses. 
In  case  the  will  be  signed  by  some  one  for  him,  the  testator  must 
acknowledge  the  signature  to  be  his  own  in  presence  of  the  wit- 
nesses. The  testator  must  declare  to  each  of  the  subscribing 
witnesses  that  the  instrument  is  his  “last  will  and  testament.” 
This  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  and  is  called  the  “publication.” 
There  must  be  at  least  two  (three  are  required  in  some  of  the 
States)  subscribing  witnesses,  who  must  act  as  such  at  the  tes- 
tator’s request,  or  at  the  request  of  some  one  in  his  presence. 
The  subscribing  witnesses  must  not  be  beneficially  interested  in 
the  provisions  of  the  will.  These  witnesses  must  all  sign  the  will 
in  the  presence  of  the  testator,  and  (in  New  York  and  some  of 
the  other  States)  in  the  presence  of  each  other. 

A codicil  is  an  appendix  annexed  to  the  will  after  its  execution, 
whereby  the  testator  makes  some  change  in,  or  addition  to,  his 
former  disposition,  and  must  be  signed,  published  and  attested 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  original  will. 

The  revocation  of  a will  may  be  express  or  implied.  Express, 
by  the  execution  of  a new  and  later  will,  or  by  the  intentional 
destruction  of  the  old  one,  or  by  a formal  written  revocation, 
signed  and  witnessed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  will  itself.  An 
implied  revocation  is  wrought  by  the  subsequent  marriage  of  the 
testator  and  the  birth  of  children,  or  by  either. 

DON’T  leave  anything  uncertain  in  a will,  and  don’t  neglect 
to  declare  it  to  be  your  last  will  and  testament. 

DON’T  make  a will  without  two  (better  three)  witnesses,  none 
of  whom  must  be  interested  in  it.  See  that  each  witness  writes 
his  full  name  and  address. 


252 


LEGAL  ADVICE, 


DON’T  make  a new  will  unlevss  you  destroy  or  revoke  the  old 
one,  and  don’t  add  a codicil  unless  it  is  executed  in  the  same  way 
as  the  original  will. 

DON’T  neglect  to  make  a new  will  if  you  mortgage  or  sell 
property  devised  or  bequeathed  in  a prior  one. 

DON’T  make  a will  which  does  not  provide  for  children  that 
may  be  born. 

DON’T  will  property  to  a corporation  whose  charter  does  not 
permit  it  to  take  by  devise  or  bequest. 

DON’T  fail  to  say  “bequeath”  for  personal  and  “devise”  for 
real  property. 

Heirship  to  Property  Not  Bequeathed. 

In  England,  where  the  policy  is  to  keep  landed  estates  undivided, 
the  law  of  primogeniture  prevails,  giving  to  the  eldest  son  and 
his  descendants  superior  rights  to  the  property.  In  case  of  de- 
fault, the  second  son  and  his  descendants  become  the  heirs,  and 
so  on.  If  there  be  only  daughters,  they  inherit  equally. 

In  the  United  States  the  property  would  be  divided  among  the 
heirs  as  follows:  (i.)  To  the  children.  These,  if  of  equal  de- 
gree, receive  the  property  in  equal  shares.  If  of  unequal  degree, 
the  more  remote  descendants  take  the  share  that  would  have  be- 
longed to  their  parent,  if  living.  Thus:  A,  B andC  are  children 
of  the  testator,  and  of  these  B and  C are  living  and  A is  dead, 
at  the  testator’s  death.  The  estate,  after  paying  all  debts,  will  be 
divided  into  three  equal  parts,  the  descendants  of  A,  together, 
receiving  one -third,  and  B and  C each  another  third;  but  in  case 
A left  no  descendants,  then  B and  C each  will  be  awarded  one 
half  of  the  property.  (2.)  If  there  are  no  descendants  the 
parents  of  the  testator  would  receive  the  estate,  the  father  being 
sometimes  preferred  to  the  mother.  (3.)  If  parents  are 
not  living,  the  brothers  and  sisters  of  the  testator  would 
take  the  property,  sharing  equally.  If  one  or  more  of  the 
brothers  or  sisters  had  died,  their  children  would  receive  the  share 
that  would  have  descended  to  their  pai'ent.  (4.)  Grandparents 
would  be  the  next  claimants,  after  which  (5.)  uncles  and  aunts, 
and  after  them  (6.)  their  children,  and  so  on.  In  case  no  heirs 
are  found,  the  property  inures  to  the  State. 

The  above  principles  are  stated  as  generally  recognized  in  the 
laws  of  the  several  States.  As  these  laws,  however,  vary,  full 
information  can  only  be  obtained  from  the  statutes  of  the  several 
States. 


Legacies  and  the  Duties  of  Executors  and  Administrators. 

A legacy  is  a gift  or  bequest  of  personal  property  by  will  or 
testament.  Legacies  are  of  three  kinds:  General,  specific  and 
demonstrative.  253 


LEGAL  ADVICE. 


A general  legacy  does  not  amount  to  a bequest  of  any  par- 
ticular portion  of,  or  article  belonging  to,  the  personal  estate  of 
the  testator,  as  distinguished  from  all  others  of  the  same  kind; 
as  a bequest  of  a sum  of  money,  or  a horse. 

A specific  legacy  is  a bequest  of  property  specifically  desig- 
nated, so  as  to  be  definitely  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the 
testator’s  estate;  as,  a bequest  of  all  the  money  contained  in  a 
certain  box,  or  the  horse  in  the  testator’s  stable. 

A demonstrative  legacy  is  a bequest  of  a certain  amount  of 
money  to  be  paid  out  of  a particular  fund;  as,  a bequest  of  $500 
to  be  paid  out  of  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  certain  property. 

An  executor  should  first  extinguish  all  the  lawful  debts  of  the 
testator,  and  for  this  purpose  all  the  personal  property  may  be 
applied,  if  necessary,  even  though  some  of  it  has  been  bequeathed 
in  specific  legacies.  After  the  debts  are  paid,  the  specific  legacies 
are  next  to  be  satisfied;  then  the  demonstrative  legacies;  and 
lastly,  the  general  legacies.  If  there  be  insufficient  assets  to 
satisfy  any  of  the  legacies  in  either  of  these  three  classes  suc- 
cessively, those  in  the  same  class  will  be  paid  ratably  and  in 
proportion,  and  subsequent  classes  will  fail  entirely. 

Residuary  legatees  take  subject  to  all  other  legacies.  A resid- 
uar}^  legatee  is  one  to  whom  is  bequeathed  “all  the  rest,  residue 
and  remainder”  of  an  estate. 

Specific  and  general  legacies  are  subject  to  ademption;  thus,  if 
the  testator  bequeath  “the  horse  in  his  stable,”  and  at  the  time  of 
his  death  has  no  horse,  the  legacy  fails  entirely  and  is  said  to  be 
“adeemed.”  Or,  if  the  legacy  bequeaths  the  furniture  in  a cer- 
tain specified  house,  and  the  testator  remove  the  furniture  to 
another  house,  the  legacy  is  adeemed. 

Legacies  are  vested,  or  contingent.  A vested  legacy  is  one 
where  the  legatee  acquires  an  absolute  present  right  to  present 
or  future  enjoyment.  A contingent  legacy  is  one  where  the 
right  of  enjoyment  depends  upon  some  contingency;  as,  a gift  to 
a child  if  he  attains  the  age  of  twenty-one  years.  A cumulative 
legacy  is  one  additional  to  a previous  legacy  contained  in  the 
same  will.. 

In  New  York,  and  several  other  States,  a legacy  given  to  a 
subscribing  witness  of  a will  is  void.  An  executor  may  be  a 
legatee.  It  is  also  provided  that  “no  person  having  a husband, 
wife,  child,  or  parent,  shall  bequeath  to  a corporation  more  than 
one  half  of  his  personal  estate  after  the  payment  of  his  debts.” 

Legacies  are  not  required  to  be  paid  in  less  than  one  year  from 
the  time  of  the  testator’s  death.  This  time  is  allowed  to  the  ex- 
ecutor to  enable  him  to  ascertain  the  nature  and  value  of  the 
property,  the  full  liabilities  of  the  testator  and  to  collect  the 
assets.  - 


LEGAL  ADVICE, 


A legacy  to  an  infant  should  not  be  paid  except  under  ordov'  of 
the  court,  and  such  order  will  be  governed  by  the  laws  of  the 
State. 

DON’T  become  an  executor  or  administrator  unless  you  are  * 
willing  and  have  time  to  attend  to  the  duties,  and  don’t  enter 
upon  a trust  until  you  thoroughly  understand  your  duties  and 
powers. 

DON’T  mix  trust  and  personal  funds. 

DON’T  paj"  out  a dollar  of  trust  money  without  proper 
vouchers,  and  don’t  fail  to  keep  accurate  accounts. 

DON’T  liquidate  any  claim  until  you  have  the  whole  estate  in 
hand. 

DON’T  pay  a bequest  before  the  time  fixed  in  the  will  without 
deducting  interest. 

DON’T  give  a promissory  note  as  executor  or  administrator. 

DON’T  execute  a con<tested  will,  or  compromise  a claim  due 
an  estate,  without  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  court. 

DON’T  incur  any  other  expenses  than  those  of  the  burial 
until  the  will  is  properly  probated,  but  do  not  hesitate  to  sell 
perishable  property. 


The  Right  of  Dower. 

Dower  is  one-third  part  of  the  husband’s  estate,  and  in  general 
cannot  be  destroyed  by  the  mere  act  of  the  husband.  Hence,  in 
the  sale  of  real  estate  by  the  husband,  his  wife  must,  with  the 
husband,  sign  the  conveyance  to  make  the  title  complete  to  the 
purchaser.  In  the  absence  of  such  signature,  the  widow  can 
claim  full  dower  rights  after  the  husband’s  death.  Creditors, 
also,  seize  the  property  subject  to  such  dowry  rights. 

The  husband  in  his  will  sometimes  gives  his  wife  property  in 
lieu  of  dowery.  In  this  case  she  may,  after  his  death,  elect  to 
take  either  such  property  or  her  dower;  but  she  cannot  take  both. 
While  the  husband  lives  the  wife’s  right  of  dower  is  only  inchoate; 
it  cannot  be  enforced.  Should  he  sell  the  land  to  a stranger,  she 
has  no  right  of  action  or  remedy  until  his  death. 

In  all  cases  the  law  of  the  State  in  'which  the  land  is  situated 
governs  it,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  heirship,  full  information  must 
be  sought  for  in  statute  which  is  applicable. 


Marriage  and  Divorce. 

Marriage  may  be  entered  into  by  any  two  persons,  with  the 
following  exceptions:  Idiots,  lunatics,  persons  of  unsound  mind, 
persons  related  by  blood  or  affinity  within  certain  degrees  pro- 
hibited by  law,  infants  under  the  age  of  consent,  which  varies  in 
the  different  States,  and  all  persons  already  married  and  not 
legally  divorced. 


255 


LEGAL  ADVICE. 


The  violation  of  the  marriage  vow  is  cause  for  absolute  divorce 
in  all  the  States  and  Territories,  excepting  South  Carolina  and 
New  Mexico,  whicli  have  no  divorce  laws. 

# 

Physical  inability  is  a cause  in  all  the  States  except  Cal.,  Conn.,  Dak.,  la..  La., 
N.  ]V^.,  N.  V.,  S.  C.,  Tex.^  and  Vt.  In  most  of  these  States  it  renders  marriage 
voidable. 

Willful  desertion,  one  year,  in  Ark.,  Cal.,  Col.,  Dak.,  Fla.,  Ida.,  Kan.,  Ky., 
Mo.,  Mon.,  Nev.,  Utah,  Wis.,  W.  T.  and  Wyo. 

Willful  desertion,  two  years,  in  Ala.,  Ariz.,  111.,  Ind.,  la.,  Mich.,  Miss.,  Neb., 
Pa.  and  Tenn. 

Willful  desertion,  three  years,  in  Conn.,  Del.,  Ga.,  Me.,  Md.,  Mass.,  Minn.,  N. 
H.,  Nr’J.,  O..  Ore.,  Tex.,  Vt.  and  W.  Va. 

Willful  desertion,  five  years,  in  Va.  and  R.  I.,  though  the  court  may  in  the  latter 
State  decree  a divorce  for  a shorter  period. 

Habitual  drunkenness,  in  all  the  States  and  Territories,  except  Md.,  N.  J.,  N.  Y., 
N.  C.,  Pa.,  S.  C.,  Tex.,  Vt.,  Va.  and  W.  Va. 

“Imprisonment  for  felony”  or  “conviction  of  felony”  in  all  the  States  and  Terri- 
tories (with  limitations),  exceptTi2\i..  Fla.,  Me.,  Md.,  N.  J.,  N.  M.,  N.  Y.,  N.  C., 
S.  C.  and  Utah. 

“ Cruel  and  abusive  treatment,”  “ Intolerable  cruelty,”  “extreme  cruelty,”  “re- 
peated cruelty,”  or  “inhuman  treatment,”  in  all  the  States  and  Territories  except 
N.  J.,  N.  M.,  N.  Y.,  N.  C.,  S.  C.,  Va.  and  W.  Va. 

Failure  by  the  husband  to  provide:  one  year  in  Cal.,  Col.,  Dak.,  Nev.  and 
Wyo.;  two  years  in  Ind.  and  Ida.;  no  time  specified  in  Ariz.,  Ida.,  Mass.,  Mich,, 
Me.,  Neb  , R.  I.,  Vt.  and  Wis.;  willful  neglect  for  three  years  in  Del. 

Fraud  and  fraudulent  contract  in  Ariz,,  Conn.,  Ga.,  Ida.,  Kan,  Ky.,  O.,  Pa. 
and  W.  T. 

Absence  without  being  heard  from  : three  years  in  N.  H.;  seven  years  in  Conn, 
and  Vt.;  separation  five  years,  in  Ky.;  voluntary  separation,  five  years,  in  Wis. 
When  reasonably  presumed  dead  by  the  court,  in  R.  I. 

“ Ungovernable  temper,”  in  Ky. ; “ habitual  indulgence  in  violent  and  ungovern- 
able temper,”  in  Fla.;  “cruel  treatment,  outrages  or  excesses  as  to  render  their 
living  together  insupportable,”  in  Ark.,  Ky.,  La  , Mo.,  Tenn.  and  Tex. ; “indignities 
as  render  life  burdensome,”  in  Mo.,  Ore.,  Pa  , Tenn.,  W.  T.  and  Wyo. 

In  Ga.  an  absolute  divorce  is  granted  only  after  the  concurrent  verdict  of  two  juries 
at  different  terms  of  the  court.  In  N.  Y.  absolute  divorce  is  granted  for  but  one 
cause,  adultery. 

All  of  the  causes  above  enumerated  are  for  absolute  or  full 
divorce,  and  collusion  and  connivance  are  especially  barred,  and 
also  condonation  of  violation  of  the  marriage  vow. 

The  courts  of  every  State,  and  particularly  of  New  York,  are 
very  jealous  of  their  jurisdiction,  and  generally  refuse  to  recog- 
nize as  valid  a divorce  against  one  of  the  citizens  of  the  State  by 
the  court  of  another  State,  unless  both  parties  to  the  suit  were 
subject  at  the  same  time  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court  granting 
the  divorce. 

Previous  I^esidetice  Required.— Dak.,  ninety  days;  Cal.,  Ind., 
Ida.,  Neb.,  Nev.,  N.  M.,  Tex.  and  Wyoming,  six  months;  Ala.,  Ariz.,  Ark.,  Col., 
III.,  la.,  Kan.,  Ky.,  Me.,  Miss.,  Minn.,  Mich.,  Mo.,  Mont.,  N.  H.,  O.,  Ore.,  Pa., 
Utah,  Vt.  (both  parties  as  husband  and  wife),  W.  Va.,  W.  T.  and  Wis.,  one  year; 
Fla.,  Md.,  N.  C.,  R.  1.  and  Tenn.,  two  years;  Conn,  and  Mass,  (if,  when  married, 
both  parties  were  residents ; otherwise  five  years),  three  years. 

RemurriaLge. — There  are  no  restrictions  upon  remarriage  by  divorced  per- 
sons in  Conn.,  Ky.,  III.  and  Minn.  Defendant  must  wait  two  years  and  obtain 
permission  from  the  court  in  Mass.  The  decree  of  the  court  may  restrain  the  guilty 
party  from  remarrying  in  Va.  Parties  cannot  remarry  until  after  two  years,  except 

25G 


LEGAL  ADVICE. 


by  permission  of  the  court,  in  Me.  In  N.  Y.  the  plaintiff  may  remarry,  but  the  de- 
fendant cannot  do  so  during  the  plaintiff’s  lifetime,  unless  the  decree  be  modified 
or  proof  that  five  years  have  elapsed,  and  that  complainant  has  married  again  and 
defendant’s  conduct  has  been  uniformly  good.  Any  -^iolation  of  this  is  punishecteis 
bigamy,  even  though  the  other  party  has  been  married.  In  Del.,  Pa.  and  Tenn., 
no  wife  or  husband  divorced  for  violation  of  the  marriage  vow  can  marry  the  parti- 
ceps  crintinis  during  the  life  of  the  former  husband  or  wife,  nor  in  La  at  any  time  ; 
such  marriage  in  La.  renders  the  person  divorced  guilty  of  bigamy. 


Eights  of  Married  Women. 

Any  and  all  property  which  a w^oman  owns  at  her  marriage, 
together  with  the  rents,  issues  and  profits  thereof,  and  the  prop- 
erty that  comes  to  her  by  descent,  devise,  bequest,  gift  or  grant, 
or  which  she  acquires  by  her  trade,  business  labor,  or  services 
performed  on  her  separate  account,  shall,  notwithstanding  her 
marriage,  remain  her  sole  and  separate  property,  and  may  be 
used,  collected  and  invested  by  her  in  her  own  name,  and  shall 
not  be  subject  to  the  interference  or  control  of  her  husband,  or  be 
liable  for  his  debts,  unless  for  such  debts  as  may  have  been  con- 
tracted for  the  support  of  herself  or  children  by  her  as  his  agent. 

A married  woman  may  likewise  bargain,  sell,  assign,  transfer 
and  convey  such  property,  and  enter  into  contracts  regarding 
the  same  on  her  separate  trade,  labor  or  business  with  the  like 
effect  as  if  she  were  unmarried.  Her  husband,  however,  is  not 
liable  for  such  contracts,  and  they  do  not  render  him  or  his 
property  in  anj^  way  liable  therefor.  She  may  also  sue  and  be 
sued  in  all  matters  having’  relation  to  her  sole  and  separate 
property  in  the  same  manner  as  if  she  were  sole. 

In  the  following  cases  a married  woman’s  contract  may  be 
enforced  against  her  and  her  separate  estate  : i.  When  the 
contract  is  created  in  or  respecting  the  carrying  on  of  the  trade 
or  business  of  the  wife.  2.  When  it  relates  to  or  is  made  for  the 
benefit  of  her  sole  or  separate  estate.  3.  When  the  intention  to 
charge  the  separate  estate  is  expressed  in  the  contract  creat- 
ing the  liability. 

When  a husband  receives  a principal  sum  of  money  belonging 
to  his  wife,  the  law  presumes  he  receives  it  for  her  use,  and  he 
must  account  for  it,  or  expend  it  on  her  account  by  her  authority 
or  direction,  or  that  she  gave  it  to  him  as  a gift. 

If  he  receives  interest  or  income  and  spends  it  with  her 
knowledge  and  without  objection,  a gift  will  be  presumed  from 
acquiescence. 

Money  received  by  a husband  from  his  wife  and  expended  by 
him,  under  her  direction,  on  his  land,  in  improving  the  home  of 
the  family,  is  a gift,  and  cannot  be  recovered  by  the  wife,  or  re- 
claimed, or  an  account  demanded. 

An  appropriation  by  a wife,  herself,  of  her  separate  property 
to  the  use  and  benefit  of  her  husband,  in  the  absence  of  an  agree- 

257 


LEGAL  ADVICE. 


ment  to  repay,  or  any  circumstances  from  which  such  an  agree- 
ment can  be  inferred,  will  not  create  the  relation  of  debtor  and 
creditor,  nor  render  the  husband  liable  to  account 

Though  no  words  of  gift  be  spoken,  a gift  by  a wife  to  her 
husband  may  be  shown  by  the  very  nature  of  the  transaction, 
or  appear  from  the  attending  circumstances. 

A wife  who  causelessly  deserts  her  husband  is  not  entitled  to 
the  aid  of  a court  of  equity  in  getting  possession  of  such  chattels 
as  she  has  contributed  .o  the  furnishing  and  adornment  of  her 
husband’s  house.  Her  legal  title  remains,  and  she  could  convey 
her  interest  to  a third  party  by  sale,  and  said  party  would  have  a 
good  title,  unless  her  husband  should  prove  a gift. 

Wife’s  property  i&  not  liable  to  a lien  of  a sub-contractor  for 
materials  furnished  to  the  husband  for  the  erection  of  a building 
thereon,  where  it  is  not  shown  that  the  wife  was  notified  of  the 
intention  to  furnish  the  materials,  or  a settlement  made  with  the 
contractor  and  given  to  the  wife,  her  agent  or  trustee. 

The  common  law  of  the  United  States  has  some  curious  pro- 
visions regarding  the  rights  of  married  women,  though  in  all  the 
States  there  are  statutory  provisions  essentially  modifying  this  law. 
As  it  now  stands  the  husband  is  responsible  for  necessaries  sup- 
plied to  the  wife  even  should  he  not  fail  to  supply  them  himself, 
and  is  held  liable  if  he  turn  her  from  his  house,  or  otherwise 
separates  himself  from  her  without  good  cause.  He  is  not  held 
liable  if  the  wife  deserts  him,  or  if  he  turns  her  away  for  good 
cause.  If  she  leaves  him  through  good  cause,  then  he  is  liable. 
If  a man  lives  with  a woman  as  his  wife,  and  so  represents  her, 
even  though  this  representation  is  made  to  one  who  knows  she 
is  not,  he  is  liable  the  same  way  as  if  she  were  his  wife. 


Arbitration. 

Arbitration  is  an  investigation  and  determination  of  subjects 
of  difference  between  persons  involved  in  dispute,  by  unofficial 
persons  chosen  by  the  parties  in  question. 

The  general  rule  is  that  any  person  capable  of  making  a valid 
contract  concerning  the  subject  in  dispute  may  be  a partj^  to  an 
arbitration.  Any  matter  which  the  parties  may  adjust  by  agree- 
ment, or  which  may  be  made  the  subject  of  a suit  iit  law,  may 
be  determined  by  arbitration.  Crimes  cannot  be  made  the  sub- 
ject matter  of  an  arbitration.  This  matter  is  regulated  by  statute 
in  the  different  States. 


The  Law  of  Finding. 

The  general  rule  is  that  the  finder  has  a clear  title  against 
every  one  but  the  owner.  The  proprietor  of  a hotel  or  a shop 

258 


LEGAL  ADVICE 


has  no  right  to  demand  property  of  others  found  on  his  premises. 
Such  proprietor  may  make  regulations  in  regard  to  lost  property 
which  will  bind  their  employes,  but  they  cannot  bind  the  public. 
The  finder  has  been  held  to  stand  in  the  place  of  the  owner,  so 
that  he  was  permitted  to  prevail  in  an  action  against  a person 
who  found  an  article  which  the  plaintiff  had  originallj^  found, 
but  subsequently  lost.  The  police  have  no  special  rights  in  re- 
gard to  articles  lost,  unless  those  rights  are  conferred  by  statute. 
Receivers  of  articles  found  are  trustees  for  the  owner  or  finder. 
They  have  no  power  in  the  absence  of  special  statute  to  keep  an 
article  against  the  finder,  any  more  than  the  finder  has  to  retain 
an  article  against  the  owner. 


Number  of  Miles  by  Water  from  New  York  to 


Amsterdam 

...  3,510 

Kingston 

Bermudas 

. . . 660 

Lima 

Bombay 

...11,574 

Liverpool 

Boston  

. . . 310 

London 

Buenos  Ayres  

...  7,110 

Madras 

Calcutta 

...12,425 

Naples  

Canton  

...13,900 

New  Orleans  

Cape  Horn 

...  8,115 

Panama 

Cape  of  Good  Hope. . . 

...  6,830 

Pekin 

Charleston  

. . . 750 

Philadelphia 

Columbia  River 

...15,965 

Qiiebec  

Constantinople 

...  5,140 

Rio  Janeiro 

Dublin  

...  3,225 

Sandwich  Islands 

Gibraltar . . 

...  3,300 

San  Francisco 

Halifax  

...  612 

St.  Petersburg 

Hamburg 

...  3,775 

Valparaiso 

Havana 

...  1,420 

Washington  

Havre 

...  3,210 

Around  the  Globe 

1,640 

11,310 

3,210 

3,375 

11,850 

4,330 

2,045 

2,358 

15,325 

240 

1,400 

3,840 

15,300 

15,858 

4,420 

9,750 

400 

25,000 


Dimensions  of  the  Oceans. 


Area,  Sq  Miles.  Av.  Depth. 

Pacific  ..68,000,000  12,780  feet 
Atlantic.  .35,000,000  12,060  “ 
Indian..  .25,000,000  10,980  “ 


Area,  Sq.  Miles.  Av.  Depth. 

Antarctic.  .8,500,000  6,000  feet 
Arctic 5,000,000  5,100  “ 


Inland  Seas  of  the  World. 


Name.  Area, 

, Sq.  Miles 

1.  Depth. 

Caspian  Sea.  . . 

176,000 

250  ft. 

Sea  of  Aral.  . . . 

30,000 

100  “ 

Dead  Sea  . . . . 

303 

200  “ 

Lake  Baikal.  . . 

12,000 

750  “ 

Lake  Superior. 

32,000 

1,000 

Lake  Micj^igan 

. 22,400 

1,000  “ 

Lake  Huron.., 

. 21,000 

1,000  “ 

Name  Area,  Sq.  Miles.  Depth. 

Lake  Erie 10,815  204  ft. 

Lake  Ontario  . . 6,300  336  “ 

Lake  Nicaragua.  6,000  300  “ 

Lake  Titacaca.  . 3,012  800  “ 

Salt  Lake  1,875  1,400  “ 

Lake  Tchad  ....  14,000  350 

Lake  Lodoga. . .12,000  1,200  ‘‘ 


259 


BUSINESS  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


SHORT  FORM  OF  ASSIGNMENT  OF  WRITTEN  INSTRUMENT. 

For  Value  Received,  I do  hereby  assign,  transfer  and  set  over  unto  C IT 
and  his  assigns,  all  my  right,  title  and  interest  in  and  to  the  within  written  instru* 


men t,  this  day  of , A.D.  i8go.  A B. 

ORDINARY  BILL  OF  EXCHANGE,  OR  DRAFT  AT  A TIME  AFTER 
SIGHT. 

I250.  ^ Chicago,  January  I,  1890. 


Jen  ddj/s  after  sight,  pay  to  the  order  of  W F,  hundred  and  fifty  dollars, 
for  value  received,  and  charge  the  same  to  account  of 

To  M.  B.  & Co.,  ) J.  H.  C.  & Co., 

New  Vorh  City,  V Chicago, 

N V.  ) Illinois. 

When  a draft  is  payable  at  sight,  commence  thus: 

“At  sight,  pay,”  etc. 

GENERAL  FORM  OF  AGREEMENT. 

This  Agreement,  made  this day  of one  thousand  eight  hundred 

and , between  A B,  of  county  of and  State  of  Illinois,  of  the 

first  part,  and  C D,  of in  said  county  and  State,  of  the  second  part — 

Witnesseth,  that  the  Said  A B,  ini  consideration  of  the  covenants  and  agree- 
ments on  the  part  of  the  party  of  the  second  part  hereinafter  contained,  doth  cove- 
nant and  agree  to  and  with  the  said  C D,  that  (here  insert  the  agreement  on  the 
part  of  A B). 

And  the  said  C D,  in  consideration  of  the  covenants  on  the  part  of  the  party  ot 
the  first  part,  doth  covenant  and  agree  to  and  with  the  said  A B,  that  (here  insert 
the  agreement  on  the  part  of  C D). 

In  witness  whereof',  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands  and  seals,  the  day  and 
year  first  above  written.  A B.  [seal  ] 

C D.  [seal.] 

COMMON  FORM  OF  BOND  FOR  PAYMENT  OF  MONEY. 

Know  all  men  by  these  present.s,  that  I,  A B,  of in  the  county  of 

and  State  of  Illinois,  am  held  and  firmly  bound  unto  C D,  of , in  the 

county  of  and  State  aforesaid,  in  the  sum  of dollars,  to  be  paid  to 

the  said  C D,  his  executors,  administrators  and  assigns,  to  which  payment,  well  and 
truly  to  be  made,  I bind  myself,  my  heirs,  executors  and  administrators,  and  every 
of  them,  firmly  by  these  presents. 

Sealed  with  my  seal,  the day  of A D.  1890. 

The  condition  of  this  obligation  is  such,  that  if  the  above  hound  A B,  his 
heirs,  executors  and  administrators,  or  either  of  them,  shall  well  and  truly  pay,  or 
cause  to  be  paid,  unto  the  said  C D,  his  executors,  administrators  or  assigns,  the 

just  and  full  sum  of dollars,  with  interest  thereon,  at  the  yearly  rate  of 

percent,  for  the  same,  on  or  before  the day  of A.D.  1890,  then  this 

obligation  to  be  void  and  of  no  effect;  otherwise  to  remain  in  full  force. 

A B.  [seal.] 

FORM  OF  BILL  OF  SALE  OF  GOODS  OR  PERSONAL  PROPERTY. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  A B,  of in  the  county  of 

and  State  of  Illinois,  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of dollars,  to  me 

paid  by  C D,  of at  and  before  the  sealing  and  delivery  of  these  presents, 

the  receipt  whereof  i.s  hereby  acknowledged,  have  bargained,  sold  and  delivered, 
and  by  these  presents  do  bargain,  sell  and  deliver  unto  the  said  C D,  the  following 
goods  and  chattels,  towit:  (Here  insert  a bill  of  particular  goods  sold  or  personal 
property). 

To  have  and  to  hold  the  said  goods  and  chattels  unto  the  said  C D,  his  exec- 
utors, administrators  and  assigns,  to  his  and  their  own  proper  use  and  benefit  for- 
ever. And  I,  the  said  A B,  for  myself  and  my  heirs,  executors  and  administrators, 
do  warrant  and  will  defend  the  said  bargained  premises  unfo  the  said  C D.,  his 
executors,  administrators  and  assigns,  from  and  against  all  persons  whomsoever. 

In  witness  whereof,  I have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this day 

of A.D.  1890.  A B.  [seal  ] 


2G0 


FORM  OF  BOND  FOR  A DEED. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  A B,  of  the  county  of 

and  State  of  Illinois,  am  held  and  firmly  bound  unto  C D,  of  the  county  of , 

and  State  aforesaid,  in  the  penal  sum  of dollars,  to  be  paid  unto  the  said 

E F,  his  heirs,  executors,  administrators  or  assigns,  to  which  payment,  well  and 
truly  to  be  made,  I bind  myself,  my  heirs,  executors  and  administrators,  and  every 
of  them,  firmly  by  these  presents. 

Sealed  with  my  seal,  this day  ot A.D.  1890. 

The  condition  of  the  above  obligation  is  such,  that  whereas  the  above  bounden 
A B has  this  day  bargained  and  sold  to  the  said  C D,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  for  the 

sum  of dollars,  the  following  described  lot  or  parcel  of  land,  to-wit:  (here 

describe  the  land,)  which  sum  of dolLrs  is  to  be  paid  in  manner  following: 

dollars  at  the  ensealing  and  delivery  hereof,  and dollars  in 

from  the  date  hereof. 

Upon  the  payment  of  the  said  sums  being  made,  at  the  time  and  in  the  manner 
aforesaid,  the  said  A B,  for  himself,  his  heirs,  executors  and  assigns,  covenants  and 
agrees,  to  and  with  the  said  C D,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  to  execute  a good  and 
sufficient  deed  of  conveyance,  in  fee  simple,  free  from  all  incumbrance,  with  full 
and  proper  covenants  of  warranty  for  the  above  described  premises. 

Now,  if  the  said  A B shall  well  and  truly  keep,  observe  and  perform  his  said 
covenants  and  agreements  herein  contained,  on  his  part,  then  this  obligation  to  be 
void;  otherwise  to  remain  in  full  force  and  virtue.  A B.  [seal.] 


POWER  OF  ATTORNEY. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  A B,  of in  the  county  of 

and  State  of  Illinois,  have  made,  constituted  and  appointed,  and  by  these 

presents  do  make,  constitute  and  appoint^C  D,  of to  be  my  true  and  lawful 

attorney,  for  me  and  in  my  name,  and  for  my  sole  use,  to  (here  state  the  specific 
purposes  of  the  power  given),  hereby  giving  and  granting  unto  my  said  attorney 
hill  power  and  authority  in  the  premises  to  use  all  lawful  means  in  my  name,  and 
for  my  sole  benefit  for  the  purposes  aforesaid.  And  generally  to  do  and  perform 
all  such  acts,  matters  and  things  as  my  said  attorney  shall  deem  necessary  or  ex- 
pedient for  the  completion  of  the  authority  hereby  given,  as  fully  as  I might  and 
could  do  if  I were  personally  present;  hereby  ratifying  ami  confirming  all  the  acts 
of  my  said  attorney  or  his  substitutes,  done  by  virtue  of  these  presents. 

In  witness  whereof,  I have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  this day 

of A.D.  1890.  A P rsEAL.] 

WARRANTY  DEED. 

The  grantor  (here  insert  name  or  names  and  place  of  residence),  for  and  in  con- 
sideration of  (here  insert  consideration)  in  hand  paid,  conveys  and  warrants  to  (here 
insert  the  grantee’s  name  or  names)  the  following  described  real  estate  (here  insert 
description),  situated  in  the  county  of  in  the  State  of  Illinois. 

Dated  this day  of A.D.  18..  A B.  [seal.] 

QUIT  CLAIM  DEED. 

The  grantor  (here  insert  grantor’s  name  or  names  and  place  of  residence),  for 
the  consideration  of  (here  insert  consideration),  convey  and  quit  claim  to  (here  in- 
sert grantee’s  name  or  names)  all  interest  in  the  following  described  real  estate 
(here  insert  description),  situated  in  the  county  of in  the  State  of  Illinois. 

Dated  this day  of A.D.  18..  A B.  [seal.] 

MORTGAGE. 


The  mortgagor  (here  insert  name  or  names)  mortgages  and  warrants  to  (here 
insert  name  or  names  of  mortgagee  or  mortgagees),  to  secure  the  payment  of  (here 
recite  the  nature  and  amount  of  indebtedness,  showing  when  due  and  the  rate  of 
interest,  and  whether  secured  by  note  or  otherwise),  the  following  described  real 

estate  (here  insert  description  thereof),  situated  in  the  county  of in  the  State 

of  Illinois.  A B.  [seal.] 

Dated  this day  of , A.D.  18.. 

FORM  OF  CERTIFICATE  OF  ACKNOWLEDGMENT  TO  DEED  OR 
OTHER  INSTRUMENT. 

State  of  (name  of  State),  ] 

County  of  (name  of  County),  j 

I (here  give  name  of  officer  and  his  official  title)  do  hereby  certify  that  (name  of 
grantor,  and  if  acknowledged  by  wife,  her  name,  and  add  “his  wife,”)  personally 


201 


BUSINESS  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


known  to  me  to  be  the  same  person  whose  name  is  (or  are)  subscribed  to  the  fore- 
going instrument,  appeared  before  me  this  day  in  person,  and  acknowledged  that 
he  (she  or  they)  signed,  sealed  or  delivered  the  said  instrument  as  his  (her  or  their) 
free  and  voluntary  act,  for  the  uses  and  purposes  therein  set  forth. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  (private  or  official,  as  the  case  may  be)  seal,  this 

day  of ,A.D.  i8..  (Signature  of  officer.)  [seal.] 

SHORT  FORM  OF  LEASE. 

This  Indenture,  made  this day  of A. D.  i8..,  between  A B, 

party  of  the  first  part,  and  C D,  party  of  the  second  part,  witnesseth,  that  the  said 
party  of  the  first  part,  in  consideration  of  the  covenants  of  the  party  of  the  second 
part,  hereinafter  set  forth,  do.  .by  these  presents,  lease  to  the  party  of  the  second 
part,  the  following  described  property,  to-wit;  (here  describe  the  premises),  in  the 

county  of and  State  of To  have  and  to  hold  the  same,  to  the 

party  of  the  second  part,  from  the day  of i8. .,  to  the day 

of i8..  And  the  party  of  the  second  part,  in  consideration  of  the  leasing  of 

said  premises,  covenants  and  agrees  to  pay  the  party  of  the  first  part,  at as 

rent  for  the  same,  the  sum  of payable  as  follows,  to-wit:  (Here  set  forth 

the  terms  of  payment.) 

And  the  party  of  the  second  part  covenants  with  the  party  of  the  first  part  that 
at  the  expiration  of  the  term  of  this  lease,  .he.  .will  yield  up  the  premises  to  the 
party  of  the  first  part,  without  further  notice,  in  as  good  condition  as  when  the  same 
were  entered  upon  by  the  party  of  the  second  part,  loss  by  fire  or  inevitable  accident 

and  ordinary  wear  excepted,  and  that  neither,  .he.  .nor legal  representatives 

will  underlet  said  premises,  or  any  part  thereof,  or  assign  this  lease,  without  the 
written  assent  of  the  party  of  the  first  part  first  had  thereto. 

And  it  is  further  expressly  agreed  between  the  parties  hereto,  that  if  default 
shall  be  made  in  the  payment  of  the  rent  above  reserved,  or  any  part  thereof,  or  any 
of  the  covenants  or  agreements  herein  contained  to  be  kept  by  the  party  of  the 
second  part,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  party  of  the  first  part  or legal  represen- 

tatives, into  and  upon  said  premises,  or  any  part  thereof,  either  with  or  without  pro- 
cess of  law,  to  re-enter  and  re-possess  the  same  at  the  election  of  the  party  of  the 
first  part,  and  to  distrain  for  any  rent  that  may  be  due  thereon  upon  any  property 
belonging  to  the  party  of  the  second  part.  And  in  order  to  enforce  a forfeiture  for 
non-payment  of  rent,  it  shall  not  be  necessary  to  make  a demand  on  the  same  day 
the  rent  shall  become  due,  but  a failure  to  pay  the  same  at  the  place  aforesaid,  or  a 
demand  and  a refusal  to  pay  on  the  same  day  or  at  any  time  on  any  subsequent  day, 
shall  be  sufficient;  and  after  such  default  shall  be  made,  the  party  of  the  second* 

part  and  all  persons  in  possession  under shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a forcible 

detainer  of  said  premises  under  the  statute. 

And  it  is  further  covenanted  and  agreed  between  said  parties  that  (here  set 
forth  any  further  stipulation  agreed  upon.)  The  covenants  herein  shall  extend  to 
and  be  binding  upon  the  heirs,  executors  and  administrators  of  the  parties  to  this 
lease. 

Witness  the  hands  and  seals  of  said  parties,  the  day  and  year  first  above 
writen.  A B.  [seal.] 

C D.  [seal.] 

FORM  OF  WILL. 

I,  A B,  of in  the  county  of , and  State  of  Illinois,  of  the  age  of 

years,  of  sound  mind  and  memory,  do  make,  publish  and  declare  this  my 

last  will  and  testament  in  the  manner  following:  That  is  to  say. 

First,  I give  and  bequeath  to  (here  may  be  set  forth  the  manner  of  disposition 
of  personal  property,  and  the  names  of  persons  and  amount  to  each.) 

Second,  I give  and  devise  to  (here  set  forth  the  manner  of  disposition  of  real 
property,  and  the  names  of  persons  to  whom  devised,  concluding  as  follows:)  To 
have  and  to  hold  the  same  and  the  several  tracts  and  parcels  thereof  to  the  said 
his  heirs  and  assigns  forever. 

And  lastly,  I do  hereby  nominate  and  appoint to  be  executor  of  this  my 

last  will  and  testament,  hereby  revoking  all  former  wills  by  me  made.  (Add  the 
following  clause  if  desired:)  And  1 do  direct  that  rny  said  executor  shall  not  be 
obliged  to  give  security  as  such. 


m 


BC/S/JV£:SS  AND  LEGAL  FORMS. 


In  witness  whereot,  I have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  this day  of 

, A.D.  i8.,  A B.  [seal.] 

The  above  instrument,  consisting  of  one  sheet  (or  two  sheets,  as  the  case  may 
be)  was  at  the  date  thereof  signed,  sealed,  published  and  declared  by  the  said  A B 
as  and  for  his  last  will  and  testament,  in  presence  of  us,  who,  at  his  request  and  in 
his  presence,  and  in  the  presence  of  each  other,  have  subscribed  our  names  as  wit- 
nesses thereto  (or,  “ the  above  instrument,  consisting  of  one  sheet  was  at  the  date 
thereof,  declared  to  us  by  the  said  A B,  the  testator  therein  mentioned,  to  be  his 
last  will  and  testament;  and  at  the  same  time  acknowledged  to  us,  and  each  of  us, 
that  he  had  signed  and  sealed  the  same,  and  we  therefore,  at  his  request  and  in  his 
presence,  and  in  the  presence  of  each  other,  signed  our  names  thereto  as  attesting 
witnesses.)”  C D,  residing  at in county. 

G H,  residing  at in county. 

The  -oregoing  is  the  general  form  of  will,  which  can  be  varied  in  case  of  several 
devisees  and  legatees,  according  to  the  facts  or  as  circumstances  may  require. 

A devisee  is  one  to  whom  real  property  is  devised  in  the  will. 

A legatee  is  one  to  whom  personal  property  is  given  in  the  will. 

BILL  OF  SALE. 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  E D,  of  the  town  of county 

ot State  of of  the  first  part,  for  and  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of 

one  hundred  dollars,  lawful  money  of  the  United  States,  to  me  in  hand  paid,  at  or 
before  the  ensealing  and  delivery  of  these  presents,  by  C B,  of  the  second  part,  the 
receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged,  have  bargained,  sold,  granted  and  con- 
veyed, and  by  these  presents  do  bargain,  sell,  grant  and  convey  unto  the  said  party 
of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  administrators  and  assigns  (here  set  out  the 
articles  sold),  to  have  and  to  hold  the  same  unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part, 
his  executors,  administrators  and  assigns,  forever.  And  I do  for  myself,  my  heirs, 
executors  and  administrators,  covenant  and  agree  to  and  with  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part,  to  warrant  and  defend  the  said  described  goods  hereby  sold  unto  the 
said  party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  administrators  and  assigns,  against  all 
and  every  person  and  persons  wliatsoever. 

In  witness  whereof,  I have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  the day  of 

,i8..  ED.  [seal.] 

Signed,  sealed  and  delivered  ) 

in  the  presence  of  B B.  \ 

PROMISSORY  NOTE. 

$200.  Baltimore, i8.. 

Thirty  days  after  date  I promise  to  pay  B B,  or  order  (or  bearer),  two  hundred 
dollars,  for  value  received.  B.  E. 

JOINT  PROMISSORY  NOTE. 

$1,050.  Memphis, ,18.. 

Sixty  days  after  date  we  jointly  promise  to  pay  C D,  or  order  (or  bearer),  on% 
thousand  and  fifty  dollars,  for  value  received.  A C. 

B H 

NOTE  PAYABLE  ON  DEMAND. 

$100.  Mobile, , 18 . . 

On  demand,  tor  value  received,  I promise  to  pay  H B,  or  order  (or  bearer),  one 
hundred  dollars  (with  interest).  C.  C. 

NOTE  PAYABLE  AT  BANK. 

I300.  St.  Louis, 18.. 

Thirty  days  after  date,  for  value  received,  I promise  to  pay  C D A,  or  order  (or 
bearer),  three  hundred  dollars,  at  the  German-American  Savings  Bank.  D R S. 

NOTE  NOT  NEGOTIABLE. 

$100.  Madison, ,Ga.,i8.. 

Two  months  after  date  I promise  to  payj  H,  one  hundred  dollars,  for  value 
received,  B B. 

NOTE  WITH  SURETY. 

I75.  ^ Columbus,  Miss., 18.. 

Six  months  from  date  I promise  to  pay  E G,  or  order  (or  bearer),  seventy-five 
dollars,  for  value  received.  B B. 

X X. 


263 


NOTE  PAYABLE  BY  INSTALLMENTS. 

$500.  ^ Albany, ,18.. 

For  value  received,  I promise  to  pay  A C,  or  order  (or  bearer),  five  hundred 
dollars,  in  the  following  manner:  One  hundred  dollars  in  three  months,  two  hun- 
dred dollars  in  nine  months,  one  hundred  dollars  in  twelve  months,  and  one  hun- 
dred dollars  in  fifteen  months,  from  date,  with  interest  on  the  several  sums  as  they 
may  become  due.  W Z. 

DUE  BILL. 

#50.  Cincinnati, 18.. 

Due  A W,  fifty  dollars,  with  interest  from  this  date.  M A. 

DRAFT  AT  SIGHT. 

$100.  Chicago ,18.. 

At  sight,  payj  C,  or  order,  one  hundred  dollars,  and  charge  the  same  to  my 
account.  CEB. 

To  A X. 

BILL  OF  EXCHANGE. 

$500.  NewYork, ,18.. 

Fifteen  days  after  sight  (or  as  many  days  as  may  be  agreed  upon),  pay  to  the 
order  of  Mr.  B B,  five  hundred  dollars,  and  charge  the  same  to  the  account  of 
To  L M,  St.  Louis,  Mo.  C D. 


HIGH  WATER 


At  the  following  places  may  be  found  for  each  day  by  adding 
to,  or  substracting  from,  the  time  of  high  water  at  New  York  the 
hours  and  minutes  given.  The  * denotes  time  to  be  added\ 
the  t to  be  subtracted.  The  interval  between  tides  is  approxi- 
mately twelve  hours. 

Time.  Time. 


Albany,  N.  Y.*  9:39 

Annapolis,  Md.* 8:57 

Atlantic  City,  N.J.f  0:18 

Baltimore,  Md.*  10:52 

Block  Island,  R.  I.f  0:53 

Boston,  Mass.* 3:22 

Bridgeport,  Conn.*' 3:04 

Bristol,  R.  I.t 0:02 

Cape  May,  N.  J.* 0:12 

Charleston,  S.  C.f 0:43 

Eastport,  Me.* 3:01 

Fernandina,  Fla.f  . . 0:19 

Gloucester,  Mass.* 2:57 

Isles  of  Shoals*  3:11 

Jacksonville,  Fla.*  0:36 

Key  West,' Fla.* 1:23 

Marblehead,  Mass.*  3:04 

Nahant,  Mass.* 3:02 

Nantucket,  Mass.*  4:31 

New^  Bedford,  Mass.* 0:10 

Newburyport,  Mass.*  ....  3:29 

New  Haven,  Conn.*  3:01 

New  Condon,  Conn.* 1:10 


Newport,  R.  I.f 0:22 

Norfolk,  Va* 0:50 

Norwich,  Conn.* 2:05 

Old  Point  Comfort,  Va.*.  0:37 

Philadelphia,  Pa.* 5:37 

Plymouth,  Mass.* 3:12 

Point  Lookout,  Me.* 4:49 

Portland,  Me.*  . 3:10 

Portsmouth,  N.  H.* 3:16 

Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.*. . . . 4:27 

Providence,  R.  I.* 0:07 

Richmond,  Va.* 8:47 

Rockaway  Inlet,  N.  Y.f.  . 0:26 

Rockland,  Me.*  2:55 

Rockport,  Mass.*  2:50 

Salem,  Mass.*  3:05 

Sandy  Hook,  N.  J.* 0:36 

Savannah,  Ga.f 0:49 

Vineyard  Haven,  Mass.*.  3:35 

Washington,  D.  C.* 11:54 

Watch  Hill,  R.  L* 0:53 

West  Point,  N.  Y.* 2:55 

Wilmington,  N.  C.* 0:59 


264 


Interest  Laws  and  Statutes  of  Limitations. 


Interest  Laws. 

Statutes  of  Limitations. 

States  and  Territories. 

Legal 

Rate. 

Rate 

Allowed  by 
Contract. 

Judg- 

ments, 

Years. 

Notes, 

Years. 

Open 

Acc’nts 

Years. 

Alabama 

Per  Ct. 
8 

Per  Cent. 

8 

20 

6 

3 

Arkansas 

6 

10 

10 

5 

3 

Arizona 

10 

12 

5 

3 

2 

California 

7 

Any  rate 

5 

4 

2 

Colorado 

10 

Any  rate 

6 

6 

6 

Connecticut 

6 

t 

6 

6 

Dakota 

7 

Any  rate 

20 

6 

6 

Delaware 

6 

6 

20 

6 

3 

District  of  Columbia  . . . 

6 

10 

12 

3 

3 

Florida 

8 

Any  rate 

20 

5 

2 

Georgia 

7 

8 

7 

7 

4 

Idaho 

10 

18 

6 

6 

3 

Illinois 

6 

8 

7 

10 

5 

Indiana 

6 

8 

10 

10 

6 

Iowa 

6 

10 

10 

10 

5 

Kansas 

7 

12 

5 

5 

2 

Kentucky 

6 

8 

15 

15 

5 

Louisiana 

5 

8 

10 

5 

3 

Maine 

6 

Any  rate 

20 

6 

6 

Maryland 

6 

6 

12 

3 

3 

Massachusetts 

6 

Anv  rate 

20 

6 

6 

Michigan 

7 

10 

6 

6 

6 

Minnesota 

7 

10 

10 

6 

6 

Mississippi 

6 

10 

7 

6 

3 

Missouri 

6 

10 

20 

10 

5 

Montana 

10 

Any  rate 

6 

6 

2 

Nebraska 

7 

10 

5 

5 

4 

Nevada 

10 

Any  rate 

6 

6 

4 

New  Hampshire 

6 

6 

20 

6 

6 

New  Jersey" 

6 

6 

20 

6 

6 

New  Mexico  

6 

12 

15 

6 

4 

New  York 

6 

6* 

20 

6 

6 

North  Carolina  

6 

8 

10 

3 

3 

Ohio  

G 

8 

5 

15 

6 

Oregon  ....  

8 

10 

10 

6 

1 

Pennsylvania 

6 

6 

5 

6 

6 

Rhode  Island,. , 

6 

Any  rate 

20 

G 

6 

South  Carolina 

7 

10 

10 

6 

6 

* New  York  has  by  a recent  law  legalized  any  rate  of  interest  on  call  loans  ot 
$5,000  or  upward,  on  collateral  security,  t No  usury,  but  over  six  percent,  cannqt 
be  collected  by  law.  265 


Interest  Laws  and  Statutes  of  Limitations.  — Concluded, 


Interest  Laws. 

Statutes  of  Limitations. 

States  and  Territories. 

Legal 

Rate. 

Rate 

Allowed  by 
Contract. 

Judg- 

ments, 

Years. 

Notes, 

Years. 

Open 

Acc’nts 

Years. 

Tennessee 

Per  Ct. 
6 

Per  Cent. 

6 

10 

6 

6 

Texas. 

8 

12 

15 

4 

2 

Utah 

10 

Any  rate 

5 

4 

2 

Vermont 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

Virginia 

6 

8 

10 

5 

2 

Washington  Territory... 

10 

Any  rate 

6 

6 

3 

West  Virginia 

6 

t 

10 

10 

5 

Wisconsin 

7 

10 

20 

6 

6 

Wyoming 

12 

Any  rate 

5 

5 

4 

t No  usury,  but  over  six  per  cent,  cannot  be  collected  by  law. 


A TRIP  AROUND  THE  WORLD. 

From  Atlantic  cities  to  Omaha,  Neb.,  via  the  great  trunk  lines 
of  railway — about  1,400  miles,  in  2 days  and  2 hours. 

From  Omaha  to  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  via  Union  and  Central 
Pacific  railroads — 1,914,  in  4 days  and  6 hours. 

From  San  Francisco  to  Yokohama,  Japan,  by  Pacific  Mail  line 
of  steamers — 4,700  miles,  in  22  daj^s. 

From  Yokohama  to  Hong  Kong,  China,  by  Pacific  Mail  or 
Peninsular  and  Oriental  steamers — 1,600  miles,  in  6 days. 

From  Hong  Kong  to  Calcutta,  India,  by  Peninsular  and  Ori- 
ental steamers — 3,500  miles  in  14  daj^s. 

From  Calcutta  to  Bombay,  India,  by  the  East  Indian  and 
Great  Indian  Peninsular  railways — 1,450  miles,  in  3 days. 

From  Bombay  to  Suez,  Egypt,  by  Peninsular  and  Oriental 
steamers — 3,600  miles,  in  14  days. 

From  Suez  to  Alexandria,  Egypt,  by  rail — 225  miles,  in  10 
hours. 

From  Alexandria  to  Brindisi,  Italy,  by  Peninsular  and  Oriental 
steamers — 850  miles,  in  3 days. 

Brindisi  to  London,  Eng.,  by  rail,  via  Paris  or  the  Rhine — 1,200 
miles,  in  3 days. 

From  London  to  Liverpool,  Eng.,  by  railway — 200  miles,  in  6 
hours. 

From  Liverpool  to  the  Atlantic  cities,  America,  by  either  of 
the  great  Atlantic  steamship  lines — 3,000  miles,  in  10  daj^s. 

Total  distance,  23,639  miles.  Time,  82  days.  Fare,  about 
$1,100,  with  $4  per  day  for  meals  and  incidentals  ; the  total  cost 
of  the  trip,  $1,500. 


266 


U.  S.  MINING  LAWS. 


Valuable  Information  for  Owners  and  Locators  of  Mines. 

HERE  papers  have  once  been  filed  with  the  Register 
and  Receiver,  they  become  a part  of  the  record,  and 
can  neither  be  withdrawn  nor  returned,  but  must  be 
transmitted  to  the  General  Land  Office. 

An  application  will  be  rejected  when  the  description  of  the  premises  is  erroneous 
or  insufficient. 

Application  for  patent  will  be  rejected  because: 

1.  The  notice  was  published  without  the  knowledge  of  the  Register. 

2.  The  notice  was  not  published  in  a newspaper  designated  as  published  nearest 
the  claim. 

3.  Record  title  was  found  defective  ; and, 

4.  A previous  application  had  been  made  for  the  same  premises,  which  was 
withdrawn  pending  a suit  in  court  commenced  by  the  adverse  claimant. 

An  application  for  patent  will  be  rejected  when  the  survey  does  not  accurately 
define  the  boundaries  of  the  claim. 

Where  the  claim  was  not  located  in  accordance  with  law. 

Where  several  parties  own  separate  and  distinct  portions  of  a claim,  application 
for  patent  may  be  made  by  either  for  that  portion  of  the 
claim  owned  by  him  ; but  where  several  parties  own  un- 
divided interests  in  a mining  claim,  all  should  join  in 
an  application  for  a patent. 

A person  or  association  may  purchase  as  many  placer 
locations  as  the  local  law  admits,  and  embrace  them  all 
in  one  application  for  a patent. 

Two  or  more  lodes  cannot  be  embraced  in  one  applica- 
tion for  a patent  except  for  placer  claims  embracing  two 
or  more  lodes  within  their  boundaries. 

Paper  sworn  to  before  any  person  purporting  to  act  as 
a deputy  for  the  Register  and  Receiver,  cannot  be  re- 
corded as  evidence. 

In  all  patents  for  mining  claims  situated  within  the  in- 
terior boundaries  of  a town  site,  a clause  is  inserted  “excepting  and  excluding  all 
town  property,  rights  upon  the  surface,  and  all  houses,  buildings,  structures,  lots, 
blocks,  streets,  alleys,  or  other  municipal  improvements  not  belonging  to  the  grantee 
herein,  and  all  rights  necessary  or  proper  to  the  occupation,  possession  and  enjoy- 
ment of  the  same.” 

Publication  of  notice  must  be  made  in  only  one  newspaper  for  the  period  of  sixty 
days. 

Notice  must  be  published  ten  consecutive  weeks  in  weekly  newspapers,  and  in 
daily  newspapers  sixty  days  must  elapse  between  the  first  and  last  insertion. 

Where  the  Register  designates  the  daily  issue  of  a newspaper  for  publication  of 
notices  of  a mining  application  for  patent,  it  is  not  a compliance  with  law  to  change 
to  the  weekly  edition  of  the  same  paper,  without  authority  of  the  Register. 

The  existence  of  a salt  spring  on  a tract  of  land  withdraws  it  from  the  operation  of 
the  homestead  and  pre-emption  laws.  A hearing  for  the  purpose  of  proving  the 
agricultural  character  of  such  lands  is  not  allowed.  Land  containing  valuable  de- 
posits of  slate  may  be  entered  under  the  mining  acts. 

Adverse  Claims. 

Adverse  claimants  must  file  a separate  and  distinct  claim  against  each  applica- 
tion which  it  is  alleged  conflicts  with  the  premises  owned  by  such  adverse  claimant. 

The  papers  in  an  adverse  claim  once  filed  cannot  be  withdrawn,  but  become  part 
of  the  record. 

When  an  adverse  claim  has  been  filed  it  cannot  be  amended  so  as  to  embrace  a 
larger  portion  of  the  premises  than  that  described  in  the  original  adverse  claim. 

An  adverse  claim  must  be  made  out  in  proper  form  and  filed  in  the  proper  local 
office  during  the  period  of  publication  of  the  application  for  the  patent  to  be  effect- 
ive. 267 


U.  S.  MINING  LA  IVS. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  adverse  claimant  to  commence  suit  in  proper  form  with  i 
the  required  time,  and  if  he  trusts  the  uncertain  medium  of  the  United  States  maiV 
he  must  abide  the  consequences,  should  the  delay  ensue  through  misfortune  or 
accident.  Should  the  failure  to  commence  suit  be  the  result  of  the  corrupt  or  dis- 
honest action  of  his  attorney,  the  Interior  Department  cannot  redress  the  wrong. 

An  adverse  claimant  should  set  forth  in  detail  the  facts  upon  which  he  bases  his 
adverse  claim.  A statement  in  general  terms,  embodying  conclusions  of  law,  with- 
out stating  the  facts  generally,  will  not  be  considered  in  evidence. 

An  adverse  claimant  should  show  a compliance  with  the  local  laws  in  recording 
his  claim  and  in  regard  to  expenditures,  and  shall  file  a copy  of  the  original  notice 
of  his  location,  and  show  the  nature  or  extent  of  the  conflict  alleged. 

An  allegation  of  parties  to  a suit  that  they  compose  the  company  is  sufficient,  and 
they  are  not  required  to  prove  that  they  are  the  original  locators  or  the  identical 
parties  who  presented  the  adverse  claim. 

Agricultural  or  Mineral  Lands. 

Where  land  is  of  little  if  any  value  for  agricultural  purposes,  but  is  essential  to 
the  proper  development  of  mining  claims,  it  should  be  disposed  of  under  the  Mining 
Act. 

Where  lands  containing  valuable  mineral  deposifs  have  been  included  in  an  agri- 
cultural entry,  said  entry  will  be  canceled  at  any  time  prior  to  issuance  of  patent, 
upon  satisfactory  evidence  of  the  existence  of  such  valuable  deposits. 

Where  valuable  deposits  of  mineral  are  discovered  upon  a tract  after  the  same 
has  been  entered  as  agricultural,  but  before  patent  has  been  issued,  the  parties 
claiming  the  mine  might  make  application  for  patent  for  same,  and  the  agricultural 
entry  will  be  canceled  to  that  portion  of  the  land  embraced  by  said  mining  claim. 

Where  mineral  deposits  are  discovered  on  agricultural  lands  after  patent  has 
been  issued  to  an  agricultural  claimant,  they  pass  with  the  patent. 

Agricultural  college  scrip  cannot  be  received  in  payment  for  claims. 

Aliens. 

A foreigner  may  make  a mining  location  and  dispose  of  it,  provided  he  becomes  a 
citizen  before  disposing  of  the  mine.  Proof  that  the  party  was  not  a citizen  before 
disposing  of  his  claim  must  be  affirmatively  shown. 

Locators  and  intermediate  owners  other  than  applicants  will  not  be  presumed 
aliens  in  the  absence  of  allegation  or  objection  prior  to  issuance  of  patent. 

The  portion  of  a mining  claim  sold  to  an  alien  cannot  be  patented  while  such 
owner  is  an  alien  ; but  on  his  declaration  to  become  a citizen  his  right  dates  back 
to  his  purchase,  and  he  may  thereupon  secure  a United  States  patent  for  his  claim. 

Tunnels. 

There  is  no  authority  of  law  for  a tunnel  location  3,000  by  1,500  feet.  A proper 
location  is  the  width  of  the  tunnel  for  3,000  feet. 

There  is  no  provision  of  law  for  patenting  tunnel  locations,  but  lodes  discovered 
in  running  a tunnel  may  be  patented  in  like  manner  as  other  lodes. 

When  a lode  is  struck  or  discovered  for  the  first  time  in  running  a tunnel,  the 
tunnel  owners  have  the  option  of  recording  their  claim  of  1,500  feet  all  on  one  side 
of  the  point  of  discovery  or  intersection,  or  partly  on  one  side  thereof  and  partly  on 
the  other. 

Prospecting  for  blind  lodes  is  prohibited  on  the  line  of  a located  tunnel,  while  the 
tunnel  is  in  progress,  but  other  parties  are  in  no  way  debarred  from  prospecting  for 
blind  lodes  or  running  tunnels,  so  long  as  they  keep  without  the  line  of  such  tunnel. 

The  right  is  granted  to  tunnel  owners  to  1,500  feet  of  each  blind  lode  not  pre- 
viously known  to  exist,  which  may  be  discovered  in  their  tunnel. 

Cross  Ledges. 

Revised  Statutes.  Section  2336.  Where  two  or  more  ledges  cross  or  intersect 
each  other,  priority  of  title  shall  govern,  and  such  prior  location  shall  be  entitled  to 
all  ore  or  mineral  contained  within  the  space  of  intersection,  but  the  subsequent 

268 


THE  LAW  OF  COPTRIGHT, 


location  shall  have  the  right  of  way  through  the  space  of  intersection  for  the  pur- 
pose of  the  convenient  working  of  the  mine.  And  where  two  or  more  veins  unite, 
the  ol  Jest  or  prior  location  shall  take  the  vein  below  the  point  of  union,  including 
all  the  space  of  the  intersection. 


THE  LAW  OF  COPYRIGHT. 

I.  A printed  copy  of  the  title  (besides  the  two  copies  to  be 

deposited  after  publication)  of  the  book,  map,  chart,  dramatic  or  musical  composi- 
tion, engraving,  cut,  print  or  photograph,  or  a description  of  the  painting,  drawing, 
chromo,  statue,  statuary  or  model  or  design  for  a work  of  the  fine  arts,  for  which  copy- 
right is  desired,  must  be  sent  by  mail  or  otherwise,  prepaid,  addressed  “Librarian 
of  Congress,  Washington,  D.  C.”  This  must  be  done  before  the  publication  of  the 
book  or  other  article.  The  applicant  must  state  distinctly  the  name  and  resi- 
dence of  the  claimant,  and  whether  copyright  is  claimed  as  author,  desig  ler 
or  proprietor.  The  printed  title  required  may  be  a copy  of  the  title  page 
of  such  publications  as  have  title  pages.  In  other  cases,  the  title  must  be  printed 
expressly  for  copyright  entry,  with  name  of  claimant  of  copyright.  The  style 
of  type  is  immaterial,  and  the  print  of  a typewriter  will  be  accepted.  But  a sepa- 
rate title  is  required  lor  each  entry,  and  each  title  must  be  printed  on  paper  as  large 
as  commercial  note.  Tlie  title  of  a periodical  must  include  the  date  and  number. 

2.  The  legal  fee  for  recording  each  copyright  claim  is  50  cents,  and  for  a copy 
of  this  record  (or  certificate  of  copyright)  an  additional  lee  of  50  cents  is  required. 
Certificates  covering  more  than  one  entry  are  not  issued. 

3.  Within  ten  days  after  publication  of  each  book  or  other  article,  two  complete 
copies  of  the  best  editiDn  issued  must  be  sent,  to  perfect  the  copyright,  with  the 
address  “Librarian  of  Congress,  Washington,  D.  C.”  The  postage  must  be  pre- 
paid, or  else  the  publication  inclosed  in  parcels  covered  by  printed  Penalty  Labels, 
furnished  by  the  Librarian,  in  which  case  they  will  come  free  by  mail,  without 
limit  of  weight.  Without  the  deposit  of  copies  above  required  the  copyright  is 
void,  and  a penalty  of  $25  is  incurred. 

4.  No  copyright  is  valid  unless  notice  is  given  by  inserting  in  every  copy  pub- 
lished, on  the  title  page  or  the  page  following,  if  it  be  a book  ; or,  if  a map.  chart, 
musical  composition,  print,  cut,  engraving,  photograph,  painting,  drawing,  chromo, 
statue,  statuary  or  model  design  intended  to  be  perfected  as  a work  of  the  fine  arts, 
by  inscribing  upon  some  portion  thereof,  or  on  the  substance  on  which  the  same  is 
mounted,  the  following  words,  viz:  **  Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the 

year , by yin  the  office  0/ the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washingtonf^ 

or,  at  the  option  of  the  person  entering  the  copyright,  the  words:  "Copyright, 
j8 — , by .” 

The  law  imposes  a penalty  of  $100  upon  any  person  who  has  not  obtained  a copy- 
right who  shall  insert  the  notice  "Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress,'^  or  "Copy- 
right,” etc.,  or  words  of  the  same  import,  in  or  upon  any  book  or  other  article. 

5.  Any  author  may  reserve  the  right  to  translate  or  dramatize  his  own  work. 
In  this  case,  notice  should  be  given  by  printing  the  words  "Right  of  translation 
reserved,”  or  "All  rights  reserved,”  below  the  notice  of  copyright  entry,  and  noti- 
fying the  Librarian  of  Congress  of  such  reservation,  to  be  entered  upon  the  record. 

6.  The  original  term  of  copyright  runs  for  twenty-eight  years.  Within  six 
months  before  the  end  of  that  time,  the  author  or  designer,  or  his  widow  or  children, 
may  secure  a renewal  for  the  further  term  of  fourteen  years,  making  forty-two  years 
in  all. 

7.  The  time  within  which  any  work  entered  for  copyright  may  be  issued  from 
the  press  is  not  limited  by  any  law  or  regulation,  but  depends  upon  the  discretion 
of  the  proprietor.  A copyright  may  be  secured  for  a projected  work  as  well  as  for 
a completed  one.  But  the  law  provides  for  no  caveat,  or  notice  of  interference — 
only  for  actual  entry  of  title. 

8.  A copyright  is  assignable  in  law  by  any  instrument  of  writing,  but  such  as- 
signment must  be  recorded  in  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  within  sixty 

269 


PATENTS  AND  TRADEMARKS. 


days  from  its  date.  The  fee  for  this  record  and  certificate  is  $i,  and  for  a certified 
copy  of  any  record  of  assignment  $i. 

g.  A copy  of  the  record  (or  duplicate  certificate)  of  any  copyright  entry  will  be 
furnished,  under  seal,  at  the  rate  of  50  cents  each. 

10.  In  the  case  of  books  published  in  more  than  one  volume,  or  of  periodicals 
published  in  numbers,  or  of  engravings,  photographs  or  other  articles  published 
with  variations,  a copyright  is  to  be  entered  for  each  volume  or  part  of  a book,  or 
number  of  a periodical,  or  variety,  as  to  style,  title  or  inscription,  of  any  other 
article.  But  a book  published  serially  in  a periodical,  under  the  same  general  title, 
requires  only  one  entry.  To  complete  the  copyright  on  such  a work,  two  copies  of 
each  serial  part,  as  well  as  of  the  complete  work  (if  published  separately),  must  be 
deposited. 

11.  To  secure  a copyright  for  a painting,  statue,  or  model  or  design  intended  to 
be  perfected  as  a work  of  the  fine  arts,  so  as  to  prevent  infringement  by  copying, 
engraving,  or  vending  such  design,  a definite  description  must  accompany  the  ap- 
plication for  copyright,  and  a photograph  of  the  same,  at  least  as  large  as  “cabinet 
size,”  should  be  mailed  to  the  Librarian  of  Congress  within  ten  days  from  the  com- 
pletion of  the  work  or  design. 

12.  Copyrights  cannot  be  granted  upon  trademarks,  nor  upon  mere  names  of 
companies  or  articles,  nor  upon  prints  or  labels  intended  to  be  used  with  any  article 
of  manufacture.  If  protection  for  such  names  or  labels  is  desired,  application  must 
be  made  to  the  Patent  Office. 

13.  Citizens  or  residents  of  the  United  States  only  are  entitled  to  copyright. 


THE  LAW  OF  TRADEMARKS. 

Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  can  obtain  protection  for  any 

lawful  trademark  by  complying  with  the  following  ; 

1.  By  causing  to  be  recorded  in  the  Patent  office  the  name,  residence  and  place 
of  business  of  persons  desiring  the  trademark. 

2.  The  class  of  merchandise  and  description  of  the  same. 

3.  A description  of  the  trademark  itself  with  fac-similes. 

4.  The  length  of  time  that  the  said  mark  has  already  been  used. 

5.  By  payment  of  the  required  fee — $6.00  for  labels  and  $25  for  trademarks. 

6.  By  complying  with  such  regulations  as  may  be  prescribed  by  the  commis- 
sioner of  patents. 

7.  A lawful  trademark  must  consist  of  some  arbitrary  word  (not  the  name  of  a 
person  or  place),  indicating  or  not  the  use  or  nature  of  the  thing  to  which  it  is  ap- 
plied ; of  some  designation  symbol,  or  of  both  said  word  and  symbol. 


HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A PATENT. 

Patents  are  issued  in  the  name  of  the  United  States,  and  under 
the  seal  of  the  Patent  Office,  to  any  person  who  has  invented  or 
discovered  any  new  and  useful  art,  machine,  manufacture  or 
composition  of  matter,  or  any  new  and  useful  improvement 
thereof,  not  known  or  used  by  others  in  this  country,  and  not 
patented  or  described  in  any  printed  publication  in  this  or  any 
foreign  country,  before  his  invention  or  discovery  thereof,  and 
not  in  public  use  or  on  sale  for  more  than  two  years  prior  to  his 
application,  unless  the  same  is  proved  to  have  been  abandoned  ; 
and  by  any  person  who,  by  his  own  industry,  genius,  efforts  and 
expense  has  invented  and  produced  any  new  and  original  design 
for  a manufacture,  bust,  statue,  alto-relievo,  or  bas-relief ; any 

270 


HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A PATENT. 


new  and  original  design  for  the  printing  of  woolen,  silk,  cotton 
or  other  fabrics  ; any  new  and  original  impression,  ornament, 
pattern,  print  or  picture  to  be  printed,  painted,  cast  or  otherwise 
placed  on  or  worked  into  any  article  of  manufacture  ; or  any 
new,  useful  and  original  shape  or  configuration  of  any  article  of 
manufacture,  the  same  not  having  been  known  or  used  by  others 
before  his  invention  or  production  thereof,  or  patented  or 
described  in  any  printed  publication,  upon  payment  of  the  fees 
required  by  law  and  other  due  proceedings  had. 

Every  patent  contains  a grant  to  the  patentee,  his  heirs  or  assigns,  for  the  term 
of  seventeen  years,  of  the  exclusive  right  to  make,  use  and  vend  the  invention  or 
discovery  throughout  the  United  States  and  the  Territories,  referring  to  the  specifi- 
cation for  the  particulars  thereof. 

If  it  appear  that  the  inventor,  at  the  time  of  making  his  application,  believed 
himself  to  be  the  first  inventor  or  discoverer,  a patent  will  not  be  refused  on  account 
of  the  invention  or  discovery,  or  any  part  thereof,  having  been  known  or  used  in 
any  foreign  country  before  his  invention  or  discovery  thereof,  if  it  had  not  been  before 
patented  or  described  in  any  printed  publication. 

Joint  inventors  are  entitled  to  a joint  patent ; neither  can  claim  one  separately. 
Independent  inventors  of  distinct  and  independent  improvements  in  the  same 
machine  cannot  obtain  a joint  patent  for  their  separate  inventions;  nor  does  the 
fact  that  one  furnishes  the  capital  and  another  makes  the  invention  entitle  them  to 
make  application  as  joint  inventors;  but  in  such  case  they  may  become  joint 
patentees.. 

The  receipt  of  letters  patent  from  a foreign  government  will  not  prevent  the  in- 
ventor from  obtaining  a patent  in  the  United  States,  unless  the  invention  shall  have 
been  introduced  into  public  use  in  the  United  States  more  than  two  years  prior  to 
the  application.  But  every  patent  granted  for  an  invention  which  has  been  pre- 
viously patented  by  the  same  inventor  in  a foreign  country  will  be  so  limited  as  to 
expire  at  the  same  time  with  the  foreign  patent,  or,  if  there  be  more  than  one,  at  the 
same  time  with  the  one  having  the  shortest  unexpired  term,  but  in  no  case  will  it  be 
in  force  more  than  seventeen  years. 

Applications. 

Application  for  a patent  must  be  made  in  writing  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents. 
The  applicant  must  also  file  in  the  Patent  Office  a written  description  of  the  same, 
and  of  the  manner  and  process  of  making,  constructing,  compounding  and  using  it, 
in  such  full,  clear,  concise  and  exact  terms  as  to  enable  any  person  skilled  in  the 
art  or  science  to  which  it  appertains,  or  with  which  it  is  most  nearly  connected,  to 
make,  construct,  compound  and  use  the  same  ; and  in  case  of  a machine,  he  must 
explain  the  principle  thereof,  and  the  best  mode  in  which  he  has  contemplated  ap- 
plying that  principle,  so  as  to  distinguish  it  from  other  inventions,  and  particularly 
point  out  and  distinctly  claim  the  part,  improvement  or  combination  which  he 
claims  as  his  invention  or  discovery.  The  specification  and  claim  must  be  signed  * 
by  the  inventor  and  attested  by  two  witnesses. 

When  the  nature  of  the  case  admits  of  drawings,  the  applicant  must  furnish  one 
copy  signed  by  the  inventor  or  his  attorney  in  fact,  and  attested  by  two  witnesses, 
to  be  filed  in  the  Patent  Office.  In  all  cases  which  admit  of  representation  by 
model,  the  applicant,  if  required  by  the  Commissioner,  shall  furnish  a model  of 
convenient  size  to  exhibit  advantageously  the  several  parts  of  his  invention  or  dis- 
covery. 

The  applicant  shall  make  oath  that  he  verily  believes  himself  to  be  the  original 
and  first  inventor  or  discoverer  of  the  art,  machine,  manufacture,  composition  or 
improvement  for  which  he  solicits  a patent ; that  he  does  not  know  and  does  not 
believe  that  the  same  was  ever  before  known  or  used,  and  shall  state  of  what  coun- 
try he  is  a citizen.  Such  oath  may  be  made  before  any  person  within  the  United 
States  authorized  by  law  to  administer  oaths,  or,  when  the  applicant  resides  in  a 
foreign  country,  before  any  minister,  charge  d’affaires,  consul  or  commercial  agent, 

271 


HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A PATENT. 


holding  commission  under  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  or  before  any 
notary  public  of  the  foreign  country  in  which  the  applicant  may  be. 

On  the  filing  of  such  application  and  the  payment  of  the  fees  required  by  law,  if, 
on  such  examination,  it  appears  that  the  claimant  is  justly  entitled  to  a patent 
under  the  law,  and  that  the  same  is  sufficiently  useful  and  important,  the  Commis- 
sioner will  issue  a patent  therefor. 

Assignments. 

Every  patent  or  any  interest  therein  shall  be  assignable  in  law  by  an  instrument 
in  writing  ; and  the  patentee  or  his  assigns  or  legal  representatives  may,  in  like 
manner,  grant  and  convey  an  exclusive  right  under  his  patent  to  the  whole  or  any 
specified  part  of  the  United  States. 

Reissues. 

A reissue  is  granted  to  the  original  patentee,  his  legal  representatives,  or  the  as- 
signees of  the  entire  interest  when,  by  reason  of  a defective  or  insufficient  specifica- 
tion, or  by  reason  of  the  patentee  claiming  as  his  invention  or  discovery  more  than 
he  had  a right  to  claim  as  new,  the  original  patent  is  inoperative  or  invalid,  pro- 
vided the  error  has  arisen  from  inadvertance,  accident  or  mistake,  and  without  any 
fraudulent  or  deceptive  intention.  In  the  cases  of  patents  issued  and  assigned  prior 
to  July  8,  1870,  the  applications  for  reissue  may  be  made  by  the  assignees  ; but  in 
the  cases  of  patents  issued  or  assigned  since  that  date,  the  applications  must  be 
made  and  the  specifications  sworn  to  by  the  inventors,  if  they  be  living. 

Caveats. 

A caveat,  under  the  patent  law,  is  a notice  given  to  the  office  of  the  caveator’s 
claim  as  inventor,  in  order  to  prevent  the  grant  of  a patent  to  another  for  the  same 
alleged  invention  upon  an  application  filed  during  the  life  of  the  caveat  without 
notice  to  the  caveator. 

Any  citizen  of  the  United  State.*?  who  has  made  a new  invention  or  discovery,  and 
desires  further  time  to  mature  the  same,  may,  on  payment  of  a fee  of  $io,  file  in  the 
Patent  Office  a caveat  setting  forth  the  object  and  the  distinguishing  characteristics 
of  the  invention,  and  praying  protection  of  his  right  until  he  shall  have  matured 
his  invention.  Such  caveat  shall  be  filed  in  the  confidential  archives  of  the  office 
and  preserved  in  secrecy,  and  shall  be  operative  for  the  term  of  one  year  from  the 
filing  thereof. 

An  alien  has  the  same  privilege,  if  he  has  resided  in  the  United  States  one  year 
next  preceding  the  filing  of  his  caveat,  and  has  made  oath  of  his  intention  to  be- 
come a citizen. 

The  caveat  must  comprise  a specification,  oath,  and,  when  the  nature  of  the  case 
admits  of  it,  a drawing,  and,  like  the  application,  must  be  limited  to  a single  inven- 
tion or  improvement. 

Fees. 

Fees  must  be  paid  in  advance,  and  are  as  follows : On  filing  each  original  appli- 
cation for  a patent,  $15.  On  issuing  each  original  patent,  $20.  In  design  cases: 

^For  three  years  and  six  months,  $10  ; for  seven  years,  $15  ; for  fourteen  years,  $30. 
On  filing  each  caveat,  $10.  On  every  application  for  the  reissue  of  a patent,  $30.  On 
filing  each  disclaimer,  $10.  For  certified  copies  of  patents  and  other  papers,  in- 
cluding certified  printed  copies,  10  cents  per  hundred  words.  For  recording  every 
assignment,  agreement,  power  of  attorney  or  other  paper,  of  three  hundred  words 
or  under,  $i  ; of  over  three  hundred  and  under  one  thousand  words,  $2  ; of  over 
one  thousand  words,  $3.  For  copies  of  drawings,  the  reasonable  cost  of  making 
them. 


Greatest  Known  Depth  of  the  Ocean. 

The  greatest  known  depth  of  the  ocean  is  midway  between  the 
islands  of  Tristan  d’Acunha  and  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  The  bottom 
was  here  reached  at  a depth  of  46,2^6  feet,  or  eight  and  three-fourths  miles, 
exceeding  by  more  than  13,000  feet  the  height  of  Mt  Hercules,  the  loftiest  mountain 
in  the  world.  The  average  depth  of  all  the  oceans  is  from  2,000  to  3,000  fathoms. 

272 


PRINCIPAL  POINTS  OF  CONSTITUTIONAL  LAW, 


Congress  must  meet  at  least  once  a year. 

One  State  cannot  undo  the  acts  of  another. 

Congress  may  admit  as  many  new  States  as  desired. 

The  Constitution  guarantees  every  citizen  a speedy  trial  by 

A State  cannot  exercise  a power  which  is  vested  in  Congress 
alone. 

One  State  must  respect  the  laws  and  legal  decisions  of  an- 
other. 

Congress  cannot  pass  a law  to  punish  a crime  already  com- 
mitted. 

U.  S.  Senators  are  chosen  by  the  legislatures  of  the  States  by 
joint  ballot. 

Bills  for  revenue  can  originate  only  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. 

A person  committing  a felony  in  one  State  cannot  find  refuge 
in  another. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  forbids  excessive  bail 
or  cruel  punishment. 

Treaties  with  foreign  countries  are  made  by  the  President  and 
ratified  by  the  Senate. 

In  the  U.  S.  Senate  Rhode  Island  or  Nevada  has  an  equal 
voice  with  New  York. 

When  Congress  passes  a bankruptcy  law  it  annuls  all  the 
State  laws  on  that  subject. 

Writing  alone  does  not  constitute  treason  against  the  United 
States.  There  must  be  an  overt  act. 

Congress  cannot  lay  any  disabilities  on  the  children  of  a per- 
son convicted  of  crime  or  misdemeanor. 

The  Territories  each  send  a delegate  to  Congress,  who  has 
the  right  of  debate,  but  not  the  right  to  vote. 

The  Vice-President,  who  ex-officio  presides  over  the  Senate, 
has  no  vote  in  that  body  except  on  a tie  ballot. 

An  act  of  Congress  cannot  become  a law  over  the  President’s 
veto  except  on  a two-thirds  vote  of  both  houses. 

An  officei*  of  the  Government  cannot  accept  title  of  nobilitv, 
order  or  honor  without  the  permission  of  Congress. 

Money  lost  in  the  mails  cannot  be  recovered  from  the  Govern- 
ment. Registering  a letter  does  not  insure  its  contents. 

It  is  the  House  of  Representatives  that  may  impeach  the 
President  for  any  crime,  and  the  Senate  hears  the  accusation. 

If  the  President  holds  a bill  longer  than  ten  days  Avhile  Con- 
gress is  still  in  session,  it  becomes  a law  without  his  signature. 

Silver  coin  of  denominations  less  than  $i  is  not  a legal  tender 

273 


POINTS  OF  CONSTITUTIONAL  LAW. 

for  more  than  $5.00.  Copper  and  nickel  coin  is  not  legal 
tender. 

The  term  of  a Congressman  is  two  years,  but  a Congressman 
may  be  re-elected  to  as  many  successive  terms  as  his  constituents 
may  wish. 

Amendments  to  the  Constitution  require  a tw’o-thirds  vote  of 
each  house  of  Congress  and  must  be  ratified  by  at  least  three- 
fourths  of  the  States. 

When  the  militia  is  called  out  in  the  service  of  the  General 
Government,  they  pass  out  of  the  control  of  the  various  States 
under  the  command  of  the  President. 

The  President  ofthe  United  States  must  be  35  years  of  age;  a U. 
S.  Senator,  30  ; a Congressman,  25.  The  President  must  have 
been  a resident  of  the  United  States  fourteen  years. 

A grand  jury  is  a secret  tribunal,  and  may  hear  only  one  side 
of  a case.  It  simply  decides  whether  there  is  good  reason  to 
hold  for  trial.  It  consists  of  twenty -four  men,  twelve  of  whom 
may  indict. 

A naturalized  citizen  cannot  become  President  or  Vice-Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.  A male  child  born  abroad  of  Ameri- 
can parents  has  an  equal  chance  to  become  President  with  one 
born  on  American  soil. 


Curious  By-Products  from  Coal. — The  Pittsburgh  Dis- 
patch mentions  some  chemical  developments  from  coal  that  are  new.  There  are  a 
good  many  products  from  coal  that  the  majority  of  the  people  know  nothing  of. 
Their  number  will  go  into  the  thousands,  and  research  into  this  particular  branch 
of  inorganic  chemistry  is  bringing  new  and  rich  rewards  to  scientists  each  year.  One 
of  the  hydrocarbons  distinctly  produced  from  coal  tar  is  benzole.  This  is  the  base 
of  magenta  red  and  blue  coloring  matters  and  of  the  oil  of  bitter  almonds.  This  oil 
formerly  came  entirely  from  the  vegetable  product  from  which  it  takes  its  name,  but 
now  it  is,  to  a large  extent,  made  from  benzole,  and  a chemically  pure  product  is 
secured.  The  vegetable  oil  of  bitter  almonds  contains  a certain  amount  of  prussic 
acid,  which  is  a poisonous  substance.  Toluene,  or  tolulo,  is  another  product  from 
coal  tar,  which  is  the  base  of  a great  many  chemicals.  Benzoic  acid,  which  used  to 
be  made  almost  entirely  from  plants,  is  now  readily  made  from  toluene.  Carbolic 
acid  is  another  product  of  tolulo.  The  latter  is  a colorless  fluid  with  a smell  very 
much  like  crude  petroleum,  while  carbolic  acid  and  salicylic  acid,  two  of  its  prod- 
ucts, are  far  from  being  sweet-smelling  compounds.  Yet  this  same  tolulo  is  the 
basis  of  a number  of  very  fragrant  products.  Wintergreen  oil,  much  purer  than  from 
the  plant,  and  generally  preferred  by  confectioners  and  others  who  use  it,  is  one  ; 
oil  of  cinnamon,  cinnamic  acH,  and  oil  of  cloves  are  among  the  middle  products 
which  are  in  great  demand.  As  yet  the  products  of  coal  tar  have  not  been  made  use 
of  for  medicines  to  any  great  extent,  except  as  disinfectants,  but,  from  experiments 
now  going  on,  it  is  hoped  to  produce  pure  quinine  from  chinolene,  one  of  the  coal- 
tar  products,  and  scientists  say  that  it  is  only  a question  of  time  when  all  alkaloids 
known,  and  probably  others  not  now  known,  will  be  made  from  coal  tar.  It  would 
take  a good-sized  book  to  even  begin  to  give  an  idea  of  the  commercial  products 
alone  of  coal  tar.  Nearly  every  known  color,  except  cochineal  red  and  indigo  blue, 
is  made,  and  the  latter  was  produced  after  nine  years  of  experiment  by  the  eminent 
German  scientist  Byer  of  Munich,  but  the  manufacture  was  so  expensive  that  it  has 
never  been  done  except  for  scientific  purposes.  The  logwood  and  madder  dyes  01 
our  grandmothers’  days  are  rarely  seen  in  the  market  now,  owing  to  the  cheapness 
v/ith  which  they  are  manufactured.  Red  ink,  which  formerly  was  made  almost  ex- 
clusively from  carmine,  is  now  made  from  cosine,  one  of  the  numerous  coal-tar 

progeny,  274 


VOTING  AND  NATURALIZATION. 


The  right  to  vote  comes  from  the  State,  and  is  a State 
gift.  Naturalization  is  a Federal  right,  and  is  a gift  of  the 
Union,  not  of  any  one  State.  In  nearly  one-half  the  Union 
aliens  who  have  declared  intentions  vote  and  have  the  right  to 
vote  equally  with  naturalized  or  native-born  citizens.  In  the 
other  half  only  actual  citizens  may  vote.  The  Federal  natural- 
ization laws  apply  to  the  whole  Union  alike,  and  provide  that  no 
alien  male  may  be  naturalized  until  after  five  years’  residence. 
Even  after  five  years’  residence  and  due  naturalization  he  is  not 
entitled  to  vote  unless  the  laws  of  the  State  confer  the  privilege 
upon  him,  and  he  may  vote  in  one  State  (Minnesota)  four 
months  after  landing,  if  he  has  immediately  declared  his  inten- 
tion, under  United  States  law,  to  become  a citizen. 

Naturalization. 

The  conditions  under  and  the  manner  in  which  an  alien  may 
be  admitted  to  become  a citizen  of  the  United  States  are  pre- 
scribed by  Sections  2165-74  of  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the 
United  States. 

Declaration  of  Intention. — The  alien  must  declare  upon  oath  before  a Circuit 
or  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  or  a District  or  Supreme  Court  of  the  Ter- 
ritories, or  a court  of  record  of  any  of  the  States  having  common  law  jurisdiction, 
and  a seal  and  clerk,  two  years  at  least  prior  to  his  admission,  that  it  is,  bona  fde^ 
his  intention  to  b come  a citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  to  renounce  forever  all 
allegiance  and  fidelity'to  any  foreign  prince  or  State,  and  particularly  to  the  one  of 
which  he  may  be  at  the  time  a citizen  or  subject. 

Oath  on  Application  for  Admission  — He  must,  at  the  time  of  his  application 
to  be  admitted,  declare  on  oath,  before  some  one  of  the  courts  above  specified, 
“that  he  will  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  that  he  absolutely 
and  entirely  renounces  and  abjures  all  allegiance  and  fidelity  to  every  foreign 
prince,  potentate.  State  or  so veieignty,  and  particularly,  by  name,  to  the  prince, 
potentate.  State  or  sovereignty  of  which  he  was  before  a citizen  or  subject,”  which 
proceedings  must  be  recorded  by  the  clerk  of  the  court. 

Conditions  for  Citizenship. — If  it  shall  appear  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  court 
to  which  the  alien  has  applied  that  he  has  resided  continuously  within  the  United 
States  for  at  least  five  years,  and  within  the  State  or  Territory  where  such  court  is 
at  the  time  held  one  year  at  least ; and  that  during  that  time  “he  has  behaved  as  a 
man  of  good  moral  character,  attached  to  the  principles  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  and  well  disposed  to  the  good  order  and  happiness  of  the  same,”  he 
will  be  admitted  to  citizenship. 

Titles  of  Nobility.  — If  the  applicant  has  borne  any  hereditary  title  or  order  of 
nobility,  he  must  make  an  express  renunciation  of  the  same  at  the  time  of  his  ap- 
plication. 

Soldiers. — Any  alien  of  the  age  of  twenty-one  years  and  upwards,  who  has 
been  in  the  armies  of  the  United  States  and  has  been  honorably  discharged  there- 
from, may  become  a citizen  on  his  petition,  without  any  previous  declaration  of  in- 
tention, provided  that  he  has  resided  in  the  United  States  at  least  one  year  previous 
to  his  application,  and  is  of  good  moral  character. 

Minors. — Any  alien  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  years  who  has  resided  in  the 
United  States  three  years  next  preceding  his  arriving  at  that  age,  and  who  has  con- 
tinued to  reside  therein  to  the  time  he  may  make  application  to  be  admitted  a 
citizen  thereof,  may,  after  he  arrives  at  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  and  after  he 
has  resided  five  years  within  the  United  States,  including  the  three  years  of  his 
minority,  be  admitted  a citizen  ; but  he  must  make  a declaration  on  oath  and  prove 

275 


THE  PRESIDENTIAL  ELECTION. 


to  the  satisfaction  of  the  court  that  for  two  years  next  preceding  it  has  been  his 
hona  fide  intention  to  become  a citizen. 

Children  of  Naturalized  Citizens. — The  children  of  persons  who  have  been 
duly  naturalized,  being  under  the  age  of  sixteen  years  at  the  time  of  the  naturaliza- 
tion of  their  parents,  shall,  if  dwelling  in  the  United  States,  be  considered  as  citi- 
zens thereof. 

Citizens’  Children  Who  Are  Born  Abroad. — The  children  of  persons  who  now 
are  or  have  been  citizens  of  the  United  States  are,  though  born  out  of  the  limits  and 
jurisdiction  of  the  United  States,  considered  as  citizens  thereof. 

Protection  Abroad  to  Naturalized  Citizens. — Section  2000  of  the  Revised 
Statutes  of  the  United  States  declares  that  “all  naturalized  citizens  of  the  United 
States  while  in  foreign  countries  are  entitled  to  and  shall  receive  from  this  Govern- 
nient  the  same  protection  of  persons  and  property  which  is  accorded  to  native-born 
citizens.’^ 


When  a Man  Becomes  of  Age. 

The  question  sometimes  arises  whether  a man  is  entitled  to 
vote  at  an  election  held  on  the  day  preceding  the  twenty-first 
anniversary  of  his  birth.  Blackstone,  in  his  Commentaries, 
book  I,  page  463,  says  : “Full  age  in  male  or  female  is  21  years, 
which  age  is  completed  on  the  day  preceding  the  anniversary  of 
a person’s  birth,  who,  till  that  time,  is  an  infant,  and  so  styled  in 
law.”  The  late  Chief  Justice  Sharswood,  in  his  edition  of  Black- 
stone’s  Commentaries,  quotes  Christian’s  note  on  the  above  as 
follows  : “If  he  is  born  on  the  i6th  day  of  February,  1608,  he 
is  of  age  to  do  any  legal  act  on  the  morning  of  the  15th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1629,  though  he  may  not  have  lived  twenty -one  years  by 
nearly  forty-eight  hours.  The  reason  assigned  is  that  in  law 
there  is  no  fraction  of  a day  ; and  if  the  birth  were  on  the  last 
second  of  one  day  and  the  act  on  the  first  second  of  the  preced- 
ing dav  twenty -one  years  after,  then  twenty-one  years  would  be 
complete  ; and  in  the  law  it  is  the  same  whether  a thing  is  done 
upon  one  moment  of  the  day  or  another.”  The  same  high 
authority  (Sharswood)  adds  in  a note  of  his  own  : “A  peTson 
is  of  full  age  the  day  before  the  twenty-first  anniversary  of  his 
birthday.” 


THE  PRESIDENTIAL  ELECTION. 

The  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  are 
chosen  by  officials  termed  “Electors”  in  each  State,  who  are, 
under  existing  State  laws,  chosen  hy  the  qualified  voters  thereof 
by  ballot,  on  the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  Novem- 
ber in  every  fourth  year  preceding  the  year  in  which  the  Presi' 
dential  term  expires. 

The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  prescribes  that  each 
State  shall  “appoint,”  in  such  manner  as  the  Legislature  thereof 
may  direct,  a number  of  electors  equal  to  the  whole  number  of 

i7G 


THE  PRESIDENTIAL  ELECTION. 


Senators  and  Representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  en- 
titled in  Congress  ; but  no  Senator  or  Representative  or  person 
holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States  shall 
be  an  elector.  The  Constitution  requires  that  the  day  when 
electors  are  chosen  shall  be  the  same  throughout  the  United 
States.  At  the  beginning  of  our  Government  most  of  the  elect- 
ors were  chosen  bj^  the  Legislatures  of  their  respective  States, 
the  people  having  no  direct  participation  in  their  choice;  and  one 
State,  South  Carolina,  continued  that  practice  dowm  to  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  Civil  War.  But  in  all  the  States  now  the  Presi- 
dential electors  are,  under  the  direction  of  State  laws,  chosen  by 
the  people. 

The  manner  in  which  the  chosen  electors  meet  and  ballot  for 
a President  and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  is  provided 
for  in  Article  XII.  of  the  Constitution.  The  same  article  pre- 
scribes the  mode  in  which  the  Congress  shall  count  the  ballots 
of  the  electors,  and  announce  the  result. 

The  procedure  of  the  two  houses,  in  case  the  returns  of  the 
election  of  electors  from  any  State  are  disputed,  is  provided 
in  the  “Electoral  Count”  Act,  passed  by  the  Forty-ninth  Con- 
gress. 

The  Constitution  defines  who  is  eligible  for  President  of  the 
United  States,  as  follows  : 

No  person  except  a natural-born  citizen  or  a citizen  of  the 
United  States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution 
shall  be  eligible  to  the  office  of  President ; neither  shall  any 
person  be  eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  age  of  35  years. 

The  qualifications  for  Vice-President  are  the  same. 

The  “Electoral  Count”  Act  directs  that  the  Presidential  elect- 
ors shall  meet  and  give  their  votes  on  the  second  Monday  in 
January  next  following  their  election.  It  fixes  the  time  when 
Congress  shall  be  in  session  to  count  the  ballots  as  the  second 
Wednesday  in  February  succeeding  the  meeting  of  the  electors. 

The  Presidential  succession  is  fixed  by  chapter  4 of  the  acts  of 
the  Forty-ninth  Congress, iirst  session.  In  case  of  the  removal, 
death,  resignation  or  inability  of  both  the  President  and  Vice- 
President,  then  the  Secretary  of  State  shall  act  as  President 
until  the  disability  of  the  President  or  Vice-President  is  removed 
or  a President  is  elected.  If  there  be  no  Secretary  of  State,  then 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  will  act  ; and  the  remainder  of 
the  order  of  succession  is  : The  Secretary  of  War,  Attorney - 
General,  Postmaster-General,  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  Secre- 
tary of  the  Interior.  The  acting  President  must,  upon  taking 
office,  convene  Congress,  if  not  at  the  time  in  session,  in  extra- 
ordinary session,  giving  twenty  days’  notice. 

'277 


Qualifications  of  Voters  in  the  States, 


States. 


Requirement  as  to 
Citizenship. 


Alabama. . . 
Arkansas. . , 
California  . . 

Colorado 

Connecticut 
Delaware. . . 

Florida  .... 

Georgia  .... 

Illinois 

Indiana...  . 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky  . . 
Louisiana. . . 

Maine 

Maryland. 
Massach  ’ tts 
Michigan. . . 
Minnesota. . 
Mississippi.. 


Citizen  or  declared  intent. . 
Citizen  or  declared  intent. . 

Actual  citizens 

Citizen  or  declared  intent. . 

xA.ctual  citizens 

Actual  county  taxpayers. . . 
j U.  S.  citizens  or  de-  ) 

j dared  intention \ 

Actual  citizens 

Actual  citizens 

Citizen  or  declared  intent. . 

Actual  citizens 

Citizen  or  declared  intent. . 
Citizen  or  declared  intent.  . 
Citizen  or  declared  intent. . 

Actual  citizens 

Actual  citizens 

Citizens 

Citizen  or  declared  intent. . 
Citizen  or  declared  intent. . 
Actual  citizens 


Missouri. 


Citizen  or  declared  intent. . 


Nebraska  . . 

Nevada 

N.  Ham’sh’e 
New  Jersey. 
N e w Y ork . . 
N.  Carolina. 

Ohio 

Oregon...  . 
Pennsylv’n’a 

R.  Island. . . 

S.  Carolina. 
Tennessee. . 
Texas  .,..., 
Vermont . . . 
Virginia..  .. 
W.  Virginia. 
Wisconsin . . . 


Citizen  or  declared  intent. . 
Citizen  or  declared  intent. . 

Actual  citizens .' 

Actual  citizens 

Actual  citizens 

Actual  citizens 

Actual  citizens 

Citizen  or  declared  intent. . 

Actual  citizens, 

Actual  tax-paying  citizens.. 

Actual  citizens 

Actual  citizens 

Citizen  or  declared  intent. . 

Actual  citizens 

Actual  citizens 

Actual  citizens 

Citizen  or  declared  intent. . 


Residence  in 


State 

Co’ty 

Pre- 

cinct 

ly 

3 m 

1 m 

ly 

6 m 

1 m 

ly 

60  d 

30  d 

6 m 

ly 

6 m 

6 m 

ly 

1 m 

ly 

6 ni 

ly 

6 m 

ly 

90  d 

30  d 

6 m 

60  d 

30  d 

6 m 

60  d 

6 m 

30  d 

2y 

iy' 

60  d 

ly 

6 m 

30  d 

3 m 

.... 

ly 

6 m 

ly 

6 m 

3 m 

10  d 

4 m 

10  d 

6 m 

i m 

ly 

60  d 

6 m 

6 m 

SOd 

6 m 

ly 

5 m 

ly 

4 m 

sod 

ly 

90  d 

ly 

6 m 

ly 

2 m 

ly 

6 m 

ly 

60*d 

1 y 

6 m 

1 y 

6 m 

6 m 

ly 

ly 

3 m 

ly 

eod 

ly 

Registration. 


Legis.  may  regulate 
Prohib.  as  bar  to  suf 
Required  by  law 
Req.  by  constitution 
Required  by  law 
No  reg.  required 

Req.  by  constitutio 

Legis.  may  regulate 
Required  by  law 
No  law  for  reg 
Required  by  law 
Req.  in  cities  only 
No  reg.  required 
Legis  may  regulate 
Required  by  law 
Req.  by  constitution 
Required  by  law 
Required  by  law 
Required  by  law 
Req.  by  constitution 
Req.  by  constitu- 
tion in  cities  only 
Required  by  law 
Req.  by  constitution 
Required  by  law 
Req.  cities  of  10,000 
Req.  cities  of  10,000 
Req.  by  constitution 
No  reg.  required 


Req.  by  constitution 
Required  by  law 
Req.  by  constitution 
No  reg.  required 
Prohib^ited 
Required  by  law 
Required  by  law 
Prohibited 
Required  by  law 


State  elections  are  held  in  the  various  States  as  follows:  Ala- 
bama and  Kentucky,  first  Monday  in  August;  Arkansas,  first 
Monday  in  September;  Georgia,  first  Wednesday  in  October; 
Louisiana,  Tuesday  after  third  Monday  in  April;  Maine,  second 
Monday  in  September; -Oregon,  first  Monday  in  June;  Rhode 
Island,  first  Wednesday  in  April;  Vermont,  first  Tuesday  in 
September.  All  others  are  on  Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in 
November.  State  Presidential  elections  are  all  on  Tuesday  after 
first  Monday  in  November. 

Roderigo  de  Triana  was  the  name  of  the  sailor  with  Col- 
umbus who  first  saw  the  “New  World” — at  2 A.  m.,  Oct.  12, 
1492,  on  board  the  Pinta. 


THE  AUSTRALIAN  BALLOT  SYSTEM. 

What  is  termed  the  Australian  Ballot  Sj^stem,  the  professed 
purposes  of  which  are  to  secure  the  secrecy  of  the  ballot  and 
prevent  the  intimidation  or  corrupting  of  the  voter,  was  prac- 
tically introduced  into  the  United  States  recently  by  its  adoption 
by  law  in  the  State  of  Massachusetts  and  the  city  of  Louisville, 
Ky.  Agitation  for  the  adoption  of  this  plan  of  voting  is  now 
rife  in  many  States. 

Its  substantial  requirements  are  as  follows  : Ballots  are  to  be 
provided  at  public  expense  ; none  but  these  ballots  are  to  be 
used  ; on  them  are  to  be  printed  the  names  of  all  candidates 
who  are  nominated  either  by  conventions  or  petitions  a short 
period  prior  to  the  election  ; the  ballots  are  to  be  distributed 
only  by  sworn  ballot  clerks,  at  the  polls,  to  voters,  and  for  actual 
and  immediate  use  in  voting ; the  voter  is  allowed  five  minutes 
in  which  to  retire  into  a booth  conveniently  arranged,  where  he 
secretly  marks  his  choice  of  candidates  upon  the  face  of  the  bal- 
lot, or,  if  he  prefers,  writes  the  names  of  candidates  of  his  own 
nomination  in  place  of  those  whose  names  are  already  printed  ; 
having  done  this  he  proceeds  directly  to  the  ballot-box,  and, 
without  exposing  the  face  of  the  ballot,  or  communicating  Avith 
any  one,  deposits  the.  ballot  as  his  vote.  For  the  benefit  of  the 
blind  and  illiterate,  such  a voter  is  permitted  to  select  one  of  the 
two  ballot  clerks,  who,  under  oath  of  fidelity  and  secrecy,  assists 
him  to  mark  his  ballot. 


POPULAR  VOTE. 

For  Presidential  candidates  from  1824  to  and  including  1888. 
Prior  to  1824  electors  were  chosen  by  the  Legislatures  of  the 
different  States. 


1824— J.  Q.  Adams  had  105,321  to  155,- 
872  for  Jackson,  44,282  for  Crawford, 
and  46,587  for  Clay.  Jackson  over 
Adams,  50,551.  Adams  less  than 
combined  vote  of  others,  140,869.  Of 
the  whole  vote  Adams  had  29.92  per 
cent,  Jackson  44.27,  Clay  13  23, 
Crawford  13.23.  Adams  elected  by 
House  of  Representatives. 

1828— Jackson  had  647,231  to  509,097  for 
J.  Q.  Adams.  Jackson’s  majority, 
138,134.  Of  the  whole  vote  Jackson 
had  55.97  per  cent.,  Adams  44.03. 

1832— Jackson  had  687,502  to  530,189 
for  Clay,  and  33,108  for  Floyd  and 
Wirt  combined.  Jackson’s  majority, 
124,205.  Of  the  whole  vote  Jackson 
had  54.96  per  cent  , Clay  42.39,  and 
the  others  combined  2.65. 

1836 —Van  Buren  had  761,54910736,656, 
the  combined  vote  for  Harrison, 

279 


White,  Webster  and  Maguin.  Van 
Buren’s  majority,  24,893.  Of  the 
whole  vote  Van  Buren  had  50.83  per 
cent.,  and  the  others  combined  49.17. 

1840 — Harrison  had  1,275,017  to  1,128,- 
702  for  Van  Buren,  and  7,059  for 
Birney.  Harrison’s  majority,  139,256. 
Of  the  whole  vote  Harrison  had  52.89 
per  cent.,  Van  Buren  4682  and  Bir- 
ney .29. 

1844 — Polk  had  1,337,243  to  1,299,068 
for  Clay  and  62,300  for  Birney.  Polk 
over  Clay,  38,175.  Polk  less  than 
others  combined,  24,125.  Of  the 
whole  vote  Polk  had  49.55  per  cent., 
Clay  48.14  and  Birney  2.21. 

1848 — Taylor  had  1,360,101  to  1 220,544 
for  Cass,  and  291,263  for  Van  Buren. 
Taylor  over  Cass,  139,577.  Taylor 
less  than  others  combined,  151, 706.  Ol 
the  whole  vote  Taylor  had  47.36  per 


Popular  Vote. — Coricluded. 


cent.,  Cass  42.50  and  Van  Buren 
10.14. 

1852 — Pierce  had  1,601,474  to  1,386,578 
for  Scott  and  156,149  for  Hale.  Pierce 
over  all,  58,747.  Of  the  whole  vote 
Pierce  had  50.90  per  cent,  Scott 44. 10 
and  Hale  4 97. 

1856 — Buchanan  had  i,838,i69toi,34i,- 
264  for  Fremont  and  874,534  for  Fill- 
more. Buchanan  over  Fremont,  496,- 
905.  Buchanan  less  than  combined 
vote  of  others,  377,629.  Of  the  whole 
vote  Buchanan  had  45.34  per  cent, 
Fremont  33.09  and  Fillmore  21.57. 

i860 — Lincoln  had  1,866,352  to  1,375,- 
157  for  Douglas,  845,763  for  Brecken- 
ridge  and  589,581  for  Bell.  Lincoln 
over  Breckenridge,  491,195.  Lincoln 
less  than  Douglas  and  Breckenridge 
combined,  354,568.  Lincoln  less  than 
combined  vote  of  all  others,  944,149. 
Of  the  whole  vote  Lincoln  had  39.91 
per  cent,  Douglas 29. 40, Breckenridge 
18.08  and  Bell  12.61. 

1864 — Lincoln  had  2,216,067  to  1,808,- 
725  for  McClellan  (eleven  States  not 
voting,  viz;  Alabama,  Arkansas, 
Florida,  Georgia,  Louisiana,  Missis- 
sippi, North  Carolina,  South  Caro- 
lina, Tennessee,  Texas  and  Virginia). 
Lincoln’s  majority,  408,342.  Of  the 
whole  vote  Lincoln  had  55.06  per 
cent,  and  McClellan  44.94. 

1868 — Grant  had  3,015071  to  2,709,613 
for  Seymour  (three  States  not  voting, 
viz  : Mississippi,  Texas  and  Virginia). 
Grant’s  majority,  305,458.  Of  the 
whole  vote  Grant  had  52.67  per  cent 
and  Seymour  47.33. 

1872 — Grant  had  3,597,070  to  2,834,079 
for  Greeley,  29,408  for  O’Conor  and 
5,608  for  Black.  Grant’s  majority, 
729,975.  Of  the  whole  vote  Grant 
had  55.63  per  cent,  Greeley  43.83, 
O’ Conor  .15,  Black  .09. 

1876 — Hayes  had  4,033,950  to  4,284,885 
for  Tilden,  81,740  for  Cooper,  9,522 
for  Smith  and  2,636  scattering.  Til- 


den’s  majority  over  Hayes,  250,935, 
Tilden’s  majority  of  the  entire  vote 
cast,  157,037.  Hayes  less  than  the 
combined  vote  of  others,  344,833.  Of 
the  whole  vote  cast  Hayes  had  47.95 
per  cent,  Tilden  50.94,  Cooper  .97, 
Smith  .11,  scattering. 03. 

1880 — Garfield  had  4,449,053  to  4,442,- 
035  for  Hancock,  307,306  for  Weaver 
and  12,576  scattering.  Garfield  over 
Hancock,  7,018.  Garfield  less  than 
the  combined  vote  of  others,  313,864. 
Of  the  popular  vote  Garfield  had 
48.26  per  cent,  Hancock  48.25,  Weav- 
er 3. 33,  scattering  .13. 

1884  — Cleveland  had  4,874,986  to  4,851,- 
981  for  Blaine,  150,3^  for  St.  John, 
173,370  for  Butler.  Cleveland  had 
over  Blaine  23,006.  Cleveland  had 
48.48  percent,  Blaine  48.22,  St  John 
1.49,  Butler  1.74. 

1888 — Harrison  had  5,441,902  to  5,538,- 
560  for  Cleveland,  249,937  for  Fisk, 
147,521  for  Streeter,  3,673  for  Cowdrey, 
1,591  for  Curtis  and  9,845  scattering. 
Harrison  had  96,658  less  than  Cleve- 
land. Of  the  whole  vote  Harrison 
had  47.83  percent,  Cleveland  48.63, 
Fisk  2.21  and  Streeter  1.30. 

Of  the  Presidents,  Adams,  Federalist; 
Polk  Buchanan  and  Cleveland,  Demo- 
crats; Taylor,  Whig;  Lincoln,  Hayes, 
Garfield  and  Harrison,  Republicans, 
did  not,  when  elected,  receive  a majority 
of  the  popular  vote.  The  highest  per- 
centage of  popular  vote  received  by  any 
President  was  55.97  for  Jackson,  Demo- 
crat, in  1828,  and  the  lowest  39.91  for 
Lincoln,  Republican,  in  i860;  Harrison, 
Republican,  next  lowest,  with  47.83 
Hayes  and  Harrison,  with  the  exception 
of  John  Quincy  Adams,  who  was  chosen 
by  the  House  of  Representatives,  were 
the  only  Presidents  ever  elected  who 
did  not  have  a majority  over  their  princi- 
pal competitors,  and  Tilden  and  Cleve- 
land the  only  defeated  candidates  who 
had  a majority  over  the  President-elect. 


Candle-Power. — The  candle-power  of  a light  may  be  ap- 
proximately calculated  by  comparing  the  shadow  cast  by  a rod 
in  the  light  of  a standard  candle,  with  the  shadow  cast  by  the 
light  to  be  tested.  By  moving  the  latter  toward  or  away  from 
the  rod,  a point  will  be  reached  at  which  the  shadow  cast  by 
both  lights  will  be  of  the  same  intensity.  The  intensities  of  the 
two  lights  are  directly  proportional  to  the  squares  of  their  dis- 
tances from  the  shadows  ; for  example,  suppose  the  light  to  be 
tested  is  three  times  the  distance  of  the  candJe-  illuminating 
power  is  nine  times  as  great. 


280 


THE  CIVIL  SERVICE. 


The  officials  and  clerks — over  120,000  in  all — by  whom  the 
people’s  business  in  the  administration  of  government  is  carried 
on,  constitute  the  Civil  Service.  About  5,000  of  these  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  alone  or  with  the  consent  of  the  Sen- 
ate ; about  15,000  under  what  are  known  as  the  ‘‘Civil  Service 
Rules,”  but  the  great  body  of  officeholders  are  appointed  by 
heads  of  departments. 

Those  employed  in  the  civil  service  have  always  been  theo- 
retically entitled  to  serve  “during  good  behavior,”  but  practically, 
until  within  a few  years,  their  positions  have  depended  upon 
their  allegiance  to  the  political  party  in  power. 

In  1883  Congress  passed  a law  for  the  improvement  of  the 
civil  service  of  the  United  States.  This  act  provides  for  the 
appointment  by  the  President  of  three  commissioners  to  have  gen- 
eral charge  of  filling  the  vacancies  in  the  civil  service  depart- 
ment, and  stipulates  that  the  fitness  of  all  applicants  for  all  sub- 
ordinate positions  in  the  departments  at  Washington,  and  in  all 
custom-houses  and  postoffices  having  as  many  as  50  officeholders, 
shall  be  tested  by  examinations,  and  the  positions  assigned  with 
reference  to  the  capacity,  education  and  character  of  the  appli- 
cants, regardless  of  political  preferences. 

According  to  this,  no  absolute  appointment  to  office  can  be 
made  until  the  applicant  has  proven  his  or  her  ability  to  fill  the 
position  satisfactorily  by  six  months’  service  ; no  person  habitu- 
ally using  intoxicating  beverages  to  excess  shall  be  appointed  to, 
or  retained  in,  any  office  ; no  recommendation  which  may  be 
given  by  any  Senator  or  member  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, except  as  to  character  and  residence,  shall  be  considered 
by  the  examiners  ; men  and  women  shall  receive  the  same  pay 
for  the  same  work. 

The  general  competitive  examinations  for  admission  to  the 
service  are  limited  to  the  following  subjects  : i.  Orthography, 
penmanship  and  copying.  2.  Arithmetic — fundamental  rules, 
fractions  and  percentage.  3.  Interest,  discount,  and  the  elements 
of  bookkeeping  and  of  accounts.  4.  Elements  of  the  English 
language,  letter  writing,  and  the  proper  construction  of  sen- 
tences. 5.  Elements  of  the  geography,  history  and  government 
of  the  U.  S. 

A standing  of  65  per  cent,  in  the  first  three  branches  is  neces- 
sary to  qualify  an  applicant  for  appointment.  Where  special 
qualifications  are  necessary  for  specific  work  the  examinations 
are  adapted  to  test  the  knowledge  of  the  applicant  in  that  par^ 
ticular  line. 

No  applicant  will  be  examined  who  cannot  furnish  proof  that 
he  is  of  good  moral  character  and  in  good  health. 

There  is  a board  of  examiners  in  each  of  the  principal  cities  of 
281 


LAND  MEASURE^PUBLIC  LANDS. 

the  U.  S.,  and  several  examinations  are  held  each  year.  Appli- 
cations must  be  made  on  the  regular  “application  paper,”  which 
can  be  obtained  of  the  commissioners,  or  any  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

Several  of  the  States  have  adopted  the  principles  laid  down  in 
the  civil  service  act  and  applied  them  to  the  State  civil  service, 
and  it  is  probably  only  a question  of  time  when  Civil  Service 
Reform  will  be  consummated  throughout  the  U.  S.,  and  the 
public  service  will  thereby  be  rendered  much  more  efficient. 


United  States  Land  Measure  and  Homestead  Law. 

A township  is  36  sections,  each  a mile  square.  A section 
is  640  acres.  A quarter  section,  half  a mile  square,  is  160  acres. 
An  eighth  section,  half  a mile  long,  north  and  south,  and  a 
quarter  of  a mile  wide,  is  80 
acres.  A sixteenth  section,  a 
quarter  of  a mile  square,  is  40 
acres. 

The  sections  are  all  num- 
bered I to  36,  commencing  at 
nor-th-east  corner,  thus: 

The  sections  are  all  divided 
in  quarters,  which  are  named 
by  the  cardinal  points,  as  in 
section  i.  The  quarters  are 
divided  in  the  same  way,  as 
shown  in  the  smaller  dia- 
gram. The 
d e s c r i p- 
tion  of  a 

forty -acre  lot  would  read:  The  south  half 
of  the  west  half  of  the  south-west  quarter  of 
section  i in  township  24,  north  of  range  7 
west,  or  as  the  case  might  be;  and  some- 
times will  fall  short  and  sometimes  over- 
run the  number  of  acres  it  is  supposed  to 
contain. 


Titles  to  the  Public  Lands — How  Acquired. 

The  public  lands  of  the  United  States  still  unsold  and  open  to 
settlement  are  divided  into  two  classes,  one  class  being  sold  by 
the  Government  for  $1.25  per  acre  as  the  minimum  price,  the 
other  at  $2.50  per  acre,  being  the  alternate  sections  reserved  by 
the  United  States  in  land  grants  to  railroads,  etc.  Such  tracts 
are  sold  upon  application  to  the  Land  Register.  Heads  of 
< 282  ^ 


6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

NW  NE 

SW  SE 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

30 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

STAGE  FAVORITES. 


tamilies,  or  citizens  over  twenty-one  years,  who  may  settle 
upon  any  quarter  section  (or  160  acres)  have  the  right  under  the 
pre-emption  law  of  prior  claim  to  purchase,  on  complying  with 
the  regulations. 

Under  the  homestead  laws,  any  citizen,  or  intending  citizen, 
has  the  right  to  160  acres  of  the  $1.25  land,  or  80  acres  of  the 
$2.50  land,  after  an  actual  settlement  and  cultivation  of  the  same 
for  five  years.  Under  the  timber  culture  law,  any  settler  who 
has  cultivated  for  two  years  as  much  as  five  acres  in  trees  of  an 
80-acre  homestead,  or  ten  acres  of  a homestead  of  160  acres,  is 
entitled  to  a free  patent  for  the  land  at  the  end  of  eight  years. 


STAGE  FAVORITES. 

The  following  is  a carefully  prepared  list  of  stage  favorites, 
giving  the  professional  and  private  name  of  each:  Fanny  Dav- 
enport, Mrs.  McDowell;  Louise  Pomeroy,  Mrs.  Arthur  Elli- 
ott; Maggie  Mitchell,  Mrs.  Henry  Paddock;  Rose  Eytinge,  Mrs. 
Cyril  Searle;  Rose  Coghlan,  Mrs.  E.  H.  Edgerly;  Margaret 
Mather,  Margaret  Miles;  Kate  Claxton,  Mrs.  Charles  Steven- 
son; Effie  Ellsler,  Mrs.  Frank  Weston;  Lillian  Russell,  Mrs. 
Edward  Solomon;  Agnes  Booth,  Mrs.  John  B.  Schoefifel;  Ida 
Mulle,  Mrs.  Benjamin  Tuthill;  Kate  Castleton,  Mrs.  Harry 
Phillips;  Lotta,  Miss  Charlotte  Crabtree;  Alice  Atherton,  Mrs. 
Willie  Edouin;  Minnie  Maddern,  Mrs.  Le  Grand  White;  Irene 
Perrjq  Mrs.  Albert  Weber;  Minnie  Palmer,  Mrs.  John  R. 
Rogers;  Marie  Wainright,  Mrs.  Louis  James;  Marie  Jansen, 
Mrs.  James  Barton;  Laura  Joyce,  Mrs.  Digby  Bell;  Minnie 
Conway,  Mrs.  Osmund  Tearle;  Dickie  Lingard,  Mrs.  David 
Dalziell;  Kittie  Blanchard,  Mrs.  McKee  Rankin;  Louise  Daven- 
port, Mrs.  W.  E.  Sheridan;  Louise  Thorndyke,  Mrs.  D.  Bouci- 
cault;  Agnes  Robertson,  Mrs.  D.  Boucicault;  Maude  Granger, 

Mrs.  Albert  Follin;  Marie  Prescott,  Mrs. Perzel;  Caroline 

Hill,  Mrs.  Herbert  Kelcey;  Minnie  Hauk,  Mrs.  G.  Von  Hesse 
Wartegg;  Lily  West,  Mrs.  Harry  Brown;  Elbe  Wilton,  Mrs. 
Frank  Wilton;  Helen  Dauvray,  Mrs.  J.  M.  Ward;  Fay  Temple- 
ton, Mrs.  Howell;  Modjeska,  Mme.  Helena  Benda;  Janauschek, 
Mrs.  E.  J.  Pillott;  Emma  Abbott,  Mrs.  Eugene  Wetherell; 
Marian  Elmore,  Mrs.  Frank  Losee;  Ada  Gray,  Mrs.  Charles 
Watkins;  Lottie  Church,  Mrs.  John  A.  Stevens;  Sydney  Cow- 
ell, Mrs.  Geo.  Giddens;  Annie  Pixley,  Mrs.  Robert  Fulford; 
Clara  Morris,  Mrs.  F.  C.  Harriott;  Julia  Wilson,  Mrs.  Charles 
Fox;  Dora  Wiley,  Mrs.  Richard  Golden;  Lizzie  May  Ulmer, 
Mrs.  George  Ulmer;  Mattie  Vickers,  Mrs.  Charles  Rogers; 
Theresa  Vaughn,  Mrs.  William  Mestaj^er;  Albina  de  Mer,  Mrs. 
M.  B.  Curtis;  Alfa  Norman,  Mrs.  Charles  Byrne;  Lizzie  Harold, 
Mrs.  W.  S.  Cornlay. 


283 


POINTS  OF  CRIMINAL  LAW. 


You  cannot  lawfully  condone  an  offense  by  receiving  back 
stolen  property. 

The  exemption  of  females  from  arrest  applies  only  in  civil,  not 
in  criminal  matters. 

Every  man  is  bound  to  obey  the  call  of  a Sheriff  for  assistance 
in  making  an  arrest. 

The  rule  “Every  man’s  house  is  his  castle”  does  not  hold  good 
when  a man  is  accused  of  crime. 

Embezzlement  can  be  charged  only  against  a clerk  or  servant, 
or  the  officer  or  agent  of  a corporation. 

Bigamy  cannot  be  proven  in  law  if  one  party  to  a marriage  has 
been  absent  and  not  heard  from  for  five  years. 

Grand  larceny  is  when  the  value  of  property  stolen  exceeds 
$25.00 — when  less  than  that,  the  offense  is  petit  larceny. 

Arson  to  be  in  the  first  degree  must  have  been  committed  at 
night  and  the  buildings  fired  must  have  been  inhabited. 

Drunkenness  is  not  a legal  excuse  for  crime,  but  delirium 
tremens  is  considered  bj^  the  law  as  a species  of  insanity. 

In  a case  of  assault  it  is  only  necessary  to  prove  an  “offer  or 
attempt  at  assault.”  Battery  presumes  physical  violence. 

Mayhem,  although  popularly  supposed  to  refer  to  injury  to 
the  face,  lip,  tongue,  eye,  or  ear,  applies  to  any  injury  done  a 
limb. 

A felony  is  a crime  punishable  by  imprisonment  in  a State 
prison  ; an  “infamous”  crime  is  one  punishable  with  death  or 
State  prison. 

A police  officer  is  not  authorized  to  make  an  arrest  without  a 
warrant  unless  he  has  personal  knowledge  of  the  offense  for 
which  the  arrest  is  made. 

An  accident  is  not  a crime,  unless  criminal  carelessness  can  be 
proven.  A man  shooting  at  a burglar  and  killing  a member  of 
his  family  is  not  a murderer. 

Burglary  in  the  first  degree  can  be  committed  only  in  the 
nighttime.  Twilight,  if  dark  enough  to  prevent  distinguishing 
a man’s  face,  is  the  same  as  “night”  in  law. 

Murder  to  be  in  the  first  degree  must  be  willful,  premeditated 
and  malicious,  or  committed  while  the  murderer  is  engaged  an  a 
felonious  act.  The  killing  of  a man  in  a duel  is  murder,  and  it  is 
a misdemeanor  to  accept  or  give  a challenge. 

False  swearing  is  perjury  in  law  only  when  willfully  done, 
and  when  the  oath  has  beeft  legally  administered.  Such  quali- 
fying  expressions  as  “to  the  best  of  my  belief,”  “as  I am  in- 
formed,” may  save  an  averment  from  being  perjured.  The  law 
is  that  the  false  statement  sworn  to  must  be  absolute.  Suborna- 
tion of  perjury  is  a felony. 


284 


THE  TARIFF. 


CUSTOMS  AVERAGES  AND  TARIFF  LEGISLATION 
FOR  100  YEARS. 

The  first  Tariff  Act  was  signed  by  President  Washington  on 
July  4,  1789.  The  new  Government  had  just  been  established,  and  the  object 
of  the  law  was  to  put  money  into  the  empty  Treasury  of  the  Republic.  Alexan- 
der Hamilton  was  the  author  of  the  measure,  which  was  modeled  on  the  5 per 
cent,  import  duty  that  the  Congress  of  the  Confederation  had  tried  in  vain  to 
impose.  This  first  law  imposed  specific  duties  on  forty-seven  articles  and  ad 
valorem  rates  of  10,  12%  and  15  per  cent,  on  four  commodities  or  small 
groups.  The  unenumerated  goods  were  compelled  to  pay  5 per  cent.  The 
second  Tariff  Act  passed  the  House  by  a vote  of  39  to  13,  and  passed  the  Senate 
without  a division.  It  was  approved  by  the  President  on  August  10, 1790.  This 
Act  was  longer  than  its  predecessor  and  the  scale  of  duties  was  higher.  Then 
followed  the  Act  of  May  2,  1792,  which  became  operative  in  the  following  July. 
It  raised  the  duty  on  unenumerated  merchandise  to  per  cent,  and  that  on 
many  articles  paying  yYz  to  10  per  cent.  Another  Tariff  bill  was  passed  on 
June  7, 1794,  going  into  effect  on  July  i.  It  imposed  numerous  rates  in  addition 
to  those  already  payable,  some  of  them  specific  and  others  2j^  and  5 per  cent, 
ad  valorem.  Additional  tariff  measures  were  enacted  on  March  3 and  July  8, 
1797,  and  on  May  13,  1800.  These  Acts  imposed  additional  rates,  and  there 
was  a further  increase  of  2%  per  cent,  on  March  26,  1804,  on  all  imports  then 
paying  ad  valorem  rates. 

The  whole  industrial  situation  of  the  country  was  changed  suddenly  and 
radically  in  1807-8.  Napoleon’s  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees  were  followed  by 
the  English  Orders  in  Council,  and  Mr.  Jefferson’s  administration  retaliated 
for  the  outrages  on  our  commerce  by  the  celebrated  Embargo  in  December, 
1807.  This  was  followed  by  the  Non-Intercourse  Act  in  1809,  and  by  a declara- 
tion of  war  against  England  in  1812.  During  the  progress  of  hostilities  all 
commercial  intercourse  with  Great  Britain  was,  of  course,  suspended,  and  all 
import  duties  were  doubled  as  a war  measure. 

This  is  known  as  the  “ Tariff  of  1812.”  It  passed  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives by  a vote  of  76  to  48,  and  received  the  sanction  of  the  Senate  by  20  votes 
in  its  favor  to  9 against  it.  Amendments  to  it  were  adopted  on  February  25, 
and  again  on  July  29,  1813.  On  February  15, 1816,  the  additional  duties  imposed 
by  the  Act  of  1812  were  repealed,  and  additional  duties  of  42  per  cent.,  to  take 
effect  on  July  i,  were  substituted,  but  the  law  did  not  go  into  operation.  From 
1812  to  1816  the  average  rate  on  all  imports  was  32.73  per  cent.,  the  range  being 
from  6.84  per  cent,  in  1815  to  69.03  in  1813. 

THE  LOWNDES-CALHOUN  BILL.* 

The  next  great  Tariff  measure  is  known  as  the  Lowndes-Calhoun 
bill.  It  was  approved  April  27,  1816,  took  effect  the  following  July,  and  may 
be  said  to  be  the  first  of  the  protective  tariffs.  It  was  not  wholly  set  aside 
until  1842,  under  the  administration  of  Mr.  Polk.  The  ad  valorem  duties  under 
it  ranged  from  7J4  to  33  per  cent.  The  unenumerated  goods  paid  15  per  cent., 
the  manufacturers  of  iron  and  other  metals  generally  15  per  cent.,  the  majority 

285 


THE  TARIEP, 


of  woolen  goods  25  per  cent.,  cotton  goods  25  per  cent.,  “with  clauses  estab- 
lishing ‘ minimums  — that  is,  in  reckoning  duties,  25  cents  per  square  yard 
was  to  be  deemed  the  minimum  cost  of  cotton  cloth;  unbleached  and  uncolored 
yarn,  60  cents,  and  bleached  or  colored  yarn,  75  cents  per  pound.  These  rates 
became  practically  prohibitory  on  the  cheaper  goods.  The  law  was  amended 
April  20,  1818,  and  again  on  March  3, 1819.  It  had  the  support  of  New  England 
and  the  Middle  States,  but  the  South  was  opposed  to  it.  From  1817  to  1820 
the  average  rate  on  imports  was  26.52  per  cent.;  from  1821  to  1824,  35.02  per 
cent.;  and  from  1821  to  1824,  on  dutiable  goods  only,  36  88  per  cent.  This 
general  increase  of  duties  was  due  to  the  necessity  of  providing  for  the  interest 
on  the  heavy  debt  incurred  by  the  second  war  with  England. 

The  Clay  Tariff  followed  in  1824.  The  vote  in  the  House  was  close — 107  to 
102;  and  there  was  a majority  of  only  4 in  the  Senate.  New  England  and  the 
South  voted  against  the  measure,  while  on  the  other  side  were  ranged  the  West 
and  Middle  States.  It  received  the  President’s  signature  on  May  22,  1824,  and 
went  into  effect  July  i.  It  remained  in  force  in  almost  its  entirety  until  1842. 
It  raised  the  duty  on  woolen  goods  from  25  to  30  per  cent,  for  one  year,  and 
then  to  33>^  per  cent.  There  was  a “minimum”  of  30  cents  per  square  yard 
on  cotton  cloth.  Wool  over  10  cents  a pound  was  rated  at  20  per  cent,  until 
June  I,  1825,  then  25  per  cent,  for  one  year,  and  then  30  per  cent.  The  average 
rate  on  all  imports  from  1825  to  1828  was  47.17  per  cent,  and  on  dutiable  goods 
50.29  per  cent. 

THE  “TARIFF  OF  ABOMINATIONS.’’ 

The  “Tariff  of  Abominations,”  as  it  is  called,  was  approved 
May  19,  1828,  and  went  into  operation  part  the  following  July  and  part  in  Sep- 
tember. In  the  House  105  members  voted  for  it  and  94  members,  mostly  from 
New  England  and  the  South,  against  it.  In  the  Senate  the  vote  was  26  to  21. 
It  had  special  reference  to  iron,  wool  and  manufactures  of  wool.  The  duty  on 
wool  was  four  cents  per  pound  and  40  per  cent,  for  one  year;  then  four  cents 
and  45  per  cent,  for  a year;  then  four  cents  and  50  per  cent.  Somewhat  lower 
duties  were  provided  for  in  an  Act  passed  on  May  24,  1828,  again  in  May,  1830, 
and  still  again  on  July  13,  1832.  The  average  duty  on  all  goods  from  1829  to 
1832  was  47.81  per  cent,  and  on  all  dutiable  articles  51.55  per  cent. 

The  Modifying  Tariff  of  1832  was  intended  “ to  correct  the  inequalities  of 
that  of  1828.”  It  was  passed  by  the  Whigs,  or  National  Republicans,  and 
levied  high  duties  on  cotton  and  woolen  goods  and  other  articles  to  which 
protection  was  meant  to  be  applied.  The  vote  in  the  House  was  132  to  65  and 
in  the  Senate  32  to  16,  the  votes  in  favor  of  it  coming  from  all  sections  of  the 
country.  The  New  England  vote  in  the  House  was  a tie.  It  was  approved  on 
July  14,  and  took  effect  on  March  3,  1833.  The  existing  duties  were  superseded 
by  the  Act,  some  of  them  reduced  and  a few  raised.  In  a separate  Act  of  the 
same  date  railroad  iron  was  made  free.  Under  its  operation  the  average  rate 
on  imports  in  1832-33,  during  the  ten  months  it  was  in  force,  was  28.99  per 
cent,  and  dutiable  articles  38.25  per  cent. 

The  Compromise  Tariff  of  1833  provided  for  taking  off  one-third  of  the  duties 
each  year  until  a uniform  rate  on  all  of  20  per  cent,  should  be  reached.  It 
passed  the  House  by  119  to  85  and  the  Senate  by  29  to  16.  New  England  then 
joined  the  Middle  States  in  voting  for  high  protective  duties.  It  was  approved 
on  March  2,  1833,  the  day  before  the  Tariff  of  1832  went  into  operation,  and 
took  effect  on  January  i,  1834.  The  terms  of  the  compromise  were  that  all 
duties  which  in  the  Tariff  of  1832  exceeded  20  per  cent,  should  have  one-tenth 
of  the  excess  over  20  per  cent,  taken  off  on  January  i,  1834;  one-tenth  more  on 
January  i,  1836;  again  one-tenth  in  1838,  and  another  one-tenth  in  1840;  so  that 
by  1840  four-tenths  of  the  excess  over  20  per  cent,  would  be  disposed  of.  Then 
on  January  i,  1842,  one-half  of  this  remaining  excess  was  to  be  taken  off,  and 
on  July  I,  1842,  the  other  half  of  the  remaining  excess  was  to  go.  There  would, 
therefore,  after  July  i,  1842,  have  been  a uniform  rate  of  20  per  cent,  on  all 
articles.  The  average  duty  on  all  imports  from  1834  to  1842  was  19.25  per  cent, 
and  on  dutiable  articles  34.73  per  cent. 

286 


THE  TARIFF. 


THE  TARIFF  OF  1842. 

The  Tariff  of  1842  was  passed  by  the  Whigs  as  a party  measure, 
and  was  avowedly  protective.  It  took  effect  on  August  30,  iS\2,  changed  all 
existing  rates,  was  amended  in  March,  1843,  and  died  December  i,  1846.  New 
England  and  the  Middle  States  gave  it  strong  support.  The  South  was  earnest 
in  opposition  and  the  West  was  a tie.  The  average  rate  on  all  imports  under 
it  was  26.92  per  cent,  and  on  dutiable  articles  33.47  per  cent. 

The  Polk-Walker  Tariff  of  1846  is  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  acts  in  the 
fiscal  history  of  our  government. 

Robert  J.  Walker,  of  Mississippi,  who  was  President  Polk’s  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  laid  down  these  principles  as  a basis  for  revenue  reform  in  his 
celebrated  report  of  1845; 

“ No  more  money  shall  be  collected  than  is  needed  for  economical  adminis- 
tration. 

“The  duty  on  no  article  should  exceed  the  lowest  rate  which  will  yield  the 
largest  revenue. 

“Below  such  rate  discrimination  may  be  made,  or  for  imperative  reasons 
an  article  may  be  made  free. 

“ Luxuries  should  be  taxed  at  the  minimum  rate  for  revenue. 

“ Duties  should  be  all  ad  valorem,  and  never  specific. 

“ Duties  should  be  so  imposed  as  to  operate  as  equally  as  possible  through- 
out the  Union,  without  respect  to  class  or  section.’’ 

The  bill  framed  on  this  basis  was  approved  by  Mi.  Polk  on  July  30,  1846.  It 
passed  the  House  by  114  to  95,  the  East  being  in  opposition  and  the  West  and 
South  in  support.  The  vote  in  the  Senate  on  a third  reading  was  a tie,  and 
Vice-President  Dallas  gave  the  casting  vote  in  the  affirmative.  The  Senate 
on  the  final  passage  stood  28  to  27.  This  Act  superseded  the  Whig  tariff,  and 
remained  in  force  until  1861.  It  swept  away  specific  and  compound  duties. 
It  divided  all  dutiable  merchandise  into  eight  classes,  which  introduced 
greater  simplicity  into  the  whole  system  of  customs  regulations.  The  average 
duty  on  all  imports  was,  from  1847  to  1857,  23.20  per  cent,  and  on  dutiable 
articles  26.22  per  cent. 

The  Tariff  of  1857,  which  was  the  next  in  order,  made  a still  further  reduc- 
tion in  duties.  It  was  approved  on  March  3,  1857,  took  effect  on  July  i,  and 
remained  in  force  until  April  i,  1861.  New  England  united  with  the  South  in 
giving  it  123  votes  to  72  in  the  House,  and  in  the  Senate  33  to  12.  The  average 
duty  OH  all  goods,  from  1858  to  1861,  was  15.66  per  cent,  and  on  dutiable 
articles  20.12  per  cent. 

THE  MORRIEIi  TARIFF. 

The  Morrill  Tariff  of  I861  differed  from  all  its  predecessors  in 
that  it  provided  for  a general  system  of  compound  and  differential  duties, 
specific  and  ad  valorem,  and  also  made  a distinction  between  goods  imported 
from  different  parts  of  the  world.  It  passed  the  House  on  May  ii,  i860,  by  a 
vote  of  105  to  64,  and  the  Senate  on  February  20,  1861,  by  a vote  of  25  to  14. 
From  the  first,  through  all  the  cumbrous  legislation  that  has  followed  in  its 
wake,  it  has  been  avowedly  protective.  It  was  frequently  changed  during  the 
War  of  the  Rebellion,  ostensibly  for  purposes  of  revenue.  At  an  early  period 
in  its  history  the  number  of  rates  ran  up  to  over  two  thousand.  From  1861  to 
1869  every  year  produced  some  enlargement  of  the  original  scheme.  In  1870 
there  was  some  modification  of  rates,  generally  in  the  line  of  reduction.  Tea 
and  coffee,  taxed  since  1861,  were  then  put  on  the  free  list,  and  the  duties  on 
cotton  and  woolen  goods,  wool,  iron,  paper,  glass  and  leather  were  lowered 
about  10  per  cent.  The  free  list  was  somewhat  enlarged,  but  the  reduction 
was  rescinded  in  the  Act  of  March  3,  1875.  The  duty  on  quinine  was  abolished 
on  July  I,  1879.  The  average  duty  on  all  imports,  from  1862  to  1883,  was  34.16 
per  cent,  and  on  dutiable  articles  42.74  per  cent. 

The  Commission  Tariff  was  passed  by  the  House  on  March  3,  1883,  by  a 

287 


THE  TARIFF. 


vote  of  152  to  116,  and  passed  the  Senate  on  March  2,  the  vote  being  32  to 
31.  This  was  the  tariff  which  was  in  force  until  October  6,  1890,  when  it 
was  superseded,  except  as  to  tobacco  and  tin-plate,  by  the  operation  of  the 
McKinley  bill. 

Under  it  the  average  had  been  put  by  Senator  Carlisle  at  45^  per  cent., 
while  Senator  Aldrich  insisted  that  the  average  was  45.13  per  cent.  As  to 
the  average  rate  under  the  Tariff  of  1890,  or  McKinley  Tariff,  Senators  Aid- 
rich  and  Carlisle  again  differed,  the  former  estimating  it  at  about  41  per  cent., 
while  Mr.  Carlisle  computed  it  at  60  per  cent. — the  highest  in  the  history  of 
the  Government.  It  passed  the  House  by  a vote  of  152  to  81,  and  the  Senate 
by  a vote  of  33  to  27. 


Bovines  vs.  EquiNES. — The  differences  anatomically  and 
physiologically  between  the  cattle  tribe  (Bos)  and  the  horse 
family  (Equus)  is  an  interesting  study.  In  parallel  tables  these 
can  be  seen  at  a glance.  They  have  been  condensed  with  a view 
of  bringing  the  whole  matter  into  a nutshell,  so  they  may  be 
understood  at  a glance: 


Cattle — 

Have  two  toes 

Horned 

Have  no  mane 

Long  hair  in  a tuft  at  end  of  tail  . . . , 
Pawing  with  fore-feet  denotes  anger, 

Seize  forage  w ith  the  tongue 

Lips  slightly  movable 

Have  no  upper  incisor  teeth 

Lie  down  fore  parts  first 

Rise  on  hind-legs’  first 

Four  stomachs 

They  chew  the  cud 

Have  gall  bladder 

Mouth  generally  open  when  wearied. 

Defense  by  goring 

Bellow  or  moo 

Do  not  sweat 

Have  dewlap 

No  warts  on  inside  of  hind-legs 

Never  use  teeth  in  fighting 

Do  not  retract  the  ears 

Very  rough  tongue 

Short,  broad  head 

Wide,  drooping  ears 

Limbs  formed  for  strength 

Do  not  roll  in  the  dust 

Sleep  with  both  ears  alike 

Lie  down  to  sleep 

Eat  and  lie  down  to  ruminate 

Shoulders  straight 


Horses — 

.Have  one  toe. 

.Without  horns. 

.Have  flowing  mane. 

.Tail  covered  with  longhair. 

.Pawing  with  fore-feet  denotes  hunger. 
. Gather  food  with  the  lips. 

.Lips  very  movable. 

. Have  upper  and  lower  incisors. 

.Lie  down  hind  parts  first. 

.Rise  on  fore-legs  first. 

.One  stomach. 

.Do  not  chew  the  cud. 

.Have  no  gall  bladder. 

.Mouth  never  open  from  exhaustion. 
.Defense  by  kicking. 

.Neigh  or  whinny. 

.Perspire  easily. 

. Have  no  dewlap. 

.Hard,  oval  warts  inside  hind-legs, 

.Use  the  teeth  in  fighting. 

.Retract  the  ears  when  angry. 

.Soft,  smooth  tongue. 

.Long,  narrow  head. 

Erect,  narrow  ears. 

.Limbs  formed  for  speed. 

.Do  roll  in  the  dust. 

..Sleep  with  one  ear  forward. 

.Often  sleep  standing. 

.Never  ruminate.  Eat  little  and  often. 
.Shoulders  sloping. 


Monarchs  and  Their  End. — The  world  has  had  2,550 

kings  or  emperors  of  whom  records  are  known,  and  who  have  reigned  over  seventy- 
four  peoples.  Of  these  rulers,  300  were  o\n2rthrown,  sixty-four  were  forced  to  abdi- 
cate, twenty-eight  committed  suicide,  twenty-three  became  mad  or  imbecile,  100 
were  killed  in  battle,  123  were  captured  by  the  enemy,  twenty-five  were  tortured  to 
death,  151  were  assassinated,  and  108  were  executed. 

288 


STOCK  INVESTMENTS  EXPLAINED 


VHE  CAPITAL  of  corporations  is  always  divided  into 


shares,  usually  of  $ioo  each.  These  are  known  as  stocky 


and  represent  an  interest  in  the  property  and  profits 
of  the  company.  A dividend  is  the  distribution  of  the  profits, 
proportionate  to  number  of  shares  held  among  the  stockholders. 
Stock  certificates  are  written  instruments,  signed  by  the  proper 
officers  of  the  company,  and  certifying  that  the  holder  is  the 
owner  of  a certain  number  of  shares.  These  are  transferable, 
and  may  be  bought  and  sold  the  same  as  other  property.  The 
sum  for  which  each  share  or  certificate  was  issued  is  the  far 
valuej  and  the  amount  for  which  it  can  be  sold  the  market  value. 

Preferred  Stock  takes  preference  of  the  ordinary  stock  of 
a corporation,  and  the  holders  are  entitled  to  a stated  per  cent, 
annually  out  of  net  earnings  before  a dividend  can  be  declared 
on  common  stock.  Preferred  stocks  are  generally  the  result  of 
reorganization,  although  sometimes  issued  in  payment  of  floating 
or  unsecured  debts. 

Watering  Stock. — Sometimes  the  charter  of  a corporation 
forbids  the  declaring  of  a dividend  exceeding  a certain  per  cent, 
of  the  par  value  of  its  stock.  In  this  case  the  directors  may  find 
it  desirable  to  “water”  the  stock — that  is,  issue  additional  shares. 
This  increase  in  the  number  of  shares  of  course  reduces  the  per- 
centage of  dividend,  although  the  same  profit  in  the  aggregate  is 
secured  to  the  stockholders. 


Dealing  in  Stocks. 


The  person  employing  a broker  to  buy  the  stock  is  required  to 
advance  at  the  outset  a certain  per  cent,  of  the  purchase  price  of 
the  stock,  as  security  for  possible  losses  by  reason  of  a decline  of 
the  stock  while  in  the  broker’s  hands.  The  amount  of  the  mar- 
gin required  is  generally  lo  per  cent.,  but  may  be  more  or  less, 
and  frequently  is  nothing  at  all,  depending  on  the  broker’s  confi- 
dence in  his  customer’s  readiness  to  meet  losses,  if  there  be  any. 

The  broker  then  goes  into  the  stock  exchange  and  buys  of 
some  selling  broker  the  stock  indicated,  the  buying  broker  him- 
self advancing  the  purchase  money. 

The  relation  existing  between  the  customer  and  the  broker  in 
a transaction  of  this  kind  may  be  brieflj^  stated  as  follows: 

The  broker  agrees:  i.  That  he  will  buy  for  his  customer  the 
stock  indicated,  at  its  market  value.  2.  That  he  will  hold  the 
stock  for  the  benefit  of  his  customer  so  long  as  the  necessary 
margin  is  advanced,  and  kept  paid,  or  until  notice  is  given  by 
either  party  that  the  transaction  must,  be  closed.  3.  That  he 
will  at  all  times  have  the  stock  in  his  possession  or  under  his  con- 
trol; or  an  equal  amount  of  other  shares  of  the  same  stock,  sub- 


289 


STOCKS  AND  BONDS, 


ject  to  the  call  of  the  customer.  4.  That  he  will  sell  the  shares 
on  the  order  of  the  customer,  on  payment  to  him  of  the  pur- 
chase price  advanced  by  the  broker,  accounting  to  the  customer 
for  the  proceeds  of  the  sale.  5.  That  he  will  exercise  proper 
care  and  competent  skill  in  the  services  which  he  undertakes  to 
perform. 

The  customer  agrees:  i.  To  pay  the  margin  called  for  at  the 
outset.  2.  To  keep  good  such  margin  according  to  the  fluctua- 
tion of  the  market.  3.  To  take  the  stock  purchased  by  his  order 
when  requested  to  do  so  by  the  broker,  paying  the  latter  the  dif- 
ference between  the  margin  advanced  and  the  sum  paid  for  the 
stock  by  the  broker,  together  with  his  commissions  for  doing  the 
business. 

Although  the  broker’s  money  bought  the  stock,  it  belongs  to 
the  customer,  together  with  all  its  earnings  and  dividends,  while 
in  the  broker’s  possession,  and  the  customer  is  entitled  to  the 
possession  of  the  stock  on  payment  to  the  broker  of  the  sum  of 
money  to  which  he  is  entitled. 

The  broker  may  pledge  the  stock,  or  use  it  in  his  business,  as 
collateral,  but  he  must  have  it  ready  when  called  for  by  the  cus- 
tomer, or  other  shares  of  the  same  stock  equivalent  in  value. 

The  customer  and  the  broker  may  make  an  express  agreement 
that  the  broker  may  sell  the  stock  without  notice  to  the  customer 
in  the  case  of  a threatened  decline. 

Generally  speaking,  when  there  are  no  directions  as  to  selling, 
the  broker  will  be  protected  if  he  can  show  that  he  followed  the 
usual  custom  of  brokers  in  like  circumstances. 

If  the  customer  fails  to  advance  the  necessary  margin  when 
called  for  on  reasonable  notice,  the  broker  may  sell  for  his  own 
protection. 

The  reasonable  notice  may  be  an  hour,  a day,  or  a week,  de- 
pending on  the  condition  of  the  market  for  that  particular  stock. 

If  a broker  fraudulently  converts  the  stock  to  his  own  use,  he 
is  guilty  of  embezzlement. 

. Bonds. 

A bond  is  in  the  nature  of  a promissory  note — the  obligation 
of  a corporation,  state,  county  or  city  to  pay  a certain  sum  of 
money  at  a certain  time,  with  interest  payable  at  fixed  periods  or 
upon  certain  conditions. 

The  bond  of  a company  may  be  a perfectly  safe  investment, 
when  the  stock  is  not;  and  the  stock  of  a prosperous  and  suc- 
cessful company,  paying  large  dividends  or  having  a large  sur- 
plus, may  sell  at  a higher  price  than  the  bonds  of  the  same  com- 
pany, the  income  from  which  is  limited  to  the  agreed  rate  of  in- 
terest which  they  bear.  A much  closer  scrutiny  should  be  made 

290 


BROKERAGE  AND  COMMISSION^ 


of  a company’s  standing  when  one  thinks  of  investing  in  its 
share  capital,  than  when  it  is  the  intention  to  loan  the  company 
money  on  its  mortgage  bonds. 

Generally  the  bonds  of  business  corporations  are  secured  by 
mortgage,  but  some  classes  of  bonds  are  dependent  on  the  solv- 
ency or  good  faith  of  the  company  issuing  them. 

The  coupons  attached  to  bonds  represent  the  different  install- 
ments of  interest,  and  are  to  be  cut  off  and  collected  from  time 
to  time  as  the  interest  becomes  payable.  Bonds  are  sometimes 
issued  without  coupons,  and  are  then  called  registered  bonds. 
Such  bonds  are  payable  only  to  the  registered  owner,  and  the  in- 
terest on  these  is  paid  by  check.  Convertible  bonds  are  such  as 
contain  provisions  whereby  they  may  be  exchanged  for  stock, 
lands  or  other  property. 

Bonds  are  known  as  First  Mortgage,  Second  Mortgage,  etc.. 
Debentures,  Consols,  Convertible  Land  Grant,  Sinking  Fund, 
Adjustment,  Income  or  otherwise,  according  to  their  priority  of 
lien,  the  class  of  property  upon  which  they  are  secured,  etc.  In- 
come bonds  are  generally  bonds  on  which  the  interest  is  only 
payable  if  earned,  and  ordinarily  are  not  secured  by  mortgage. 
Bonds  are  also  named  from  the  rate  of  interest  they  bear,  or 
from  the  dates  at  which  they  are  payable  or  redeemable,  or  from 
both;  as,  U.  S.  4’s  1907,  Virginia  6’s  Western  Union  7’s,  coupon, 
1900,  Lake  Shore  reg.  2d,  1903. 

Brokerage  and  Commission. 

A commission  merchant,  or  factor,  is  an  agent  intrusted  by 
his  principal  with  goods  to  be  sold,  with  the  authority  to  deduct 
from  the  proceeds  of  the  sales  a certain  sum  agreed  upon  as  com- 
pensation for  his  services,  remitting  the  balance  to  his  principal. 

Such  an  agent  impliedly  agrees  to  perform  his  duties  in  a care- 
ful and  diligent  manner,  and  to  obey  the  orders  and  instructions 
which  he  receives  from  his  principal  so  far  as  he  is  able. 

He  is  bound  to  exercise  his  judgment  and  discretion  to  the  best 
advantage  of  his  principal,  and  to  render  just  and  true  accounts. 

In  the  absence  of  special  instructions  to  the  contrary,  he  has 
an  implied  authority  to  sell  at  such  times,  and  at  such  prices,  as 
in  the  exercise  of  his  discretion  he  may  deem  for  the  best  inter- 
ests of  his  principal. 

He  may  sell  on  credit,  if  it  is  customary  so  to  do,  among  those 
in  the  same  business,  unless  he  has  received  orders  to  the  con- 
trary. 

All  profits  made  by  him  in  handling  his  principal’s  property  or 
money,  beyond  his  ordinary  compensation,  are  for  the  benefit  of 
the  principal. 

He  cannot  himself  be  the  purchaser  of  the  goods  intrusted  to 

291 


TERMS  USED  ON  'CHANGE, 


him  to  sell,  unless  he  deals  openly  and  fairly  with  his  principal, 
and  acquaints  him  with  all  the  facts  and  circumstances  material 
for  him  to  know. 

Bankruptcy. 

Laws  have  been  enacted  in  nearly  all  the  States  for  the  pur- 
pose of  distributing  the  property  of  an  insolvent  debtor  ratably 
among  his  creditors  and  discharging  the  debtor  from  further 
liability.  Proceedings  may  be  instituted  by  the  debtor  himself 
or  by  a creditor.  As  a general  rule,  proceedings  in  one  State 
are  not  binding  on  a creditor  residing  in  another  State;  but  if 
Congress  were  to  pass  a national  bankrupt  lav/,  this  would  annul 
all  State  laws  on  the  subject,  and  proceedings  under  the  national 
law;  would  bind  creditors  in  all  the  States  and  Territories. 

Insolvency  proceedings  are  generally  commenced  by  a peti- 
tion to  the  Judges  of  the  court  of  insolvency,  setting  forth 
among  other  things  the  debtor’s  inability  to  pay  all  his  debts  in 
full,  and  his  desire  to  surrender  all  his  property  for  the  benefit 
of  his  creditors. 

If  satisfied  of  the  truth  of  matters  alleged  in  the  petition,  the 
judge  issues  an  order  commanding  the  proper  officer  to  take  the 
debtor’s  property  and. hold  it  until  a certain  time,  when  the  cred- 
itors meet  and  choose  an  assignee. 

The  assignee  then  takes  charge  of  the  property,  turns  it  into 
money,  and  declares  a dividend  for  the  creditors. 

Pending  the  proceedings,  the  debtor  may  be  examined  on  oath 
for  the  purpose  of  making  him  disclose  all  matters  concerning 
his  property  and  the  disposal  thereof. 

If  the  debtor  has  conformed  to  the  insolvent  law  in  all  re- 
spects, he  is  entitled  to  a discharge  from  his  debts,  which  is 
given  him  by  the  judge  on  the  debtor’s  obtaining  the  requisite 
assent  from  the  creditors. 

In  nearly  all  the  States  an  insolvent  debtor  may,  with  the  con- 
sent of  his  creditors,  and  in  some  States  without  such  consent, 
assign  all  his  property  to  a trustee  for  the  benefit  of  his  cred- 
itors, who  converts  it  into  money,  dividing  it  fro  rata  among  the 
creditors. 

Terms  Used  on  ’Change. 

Accommodati'.w  Paper.— ^Notes  or  bills  not  representing  an  actual  sale  or  trade 
transaction,  but  merely  drawn  to  be  discounted  for  the  benefit  of  drawer,  acceptor 
or  indorsers,  or  all  combined. 

Balance  of  Trade. — Difference  in  value  between  total  imports  and  exports  of 
a country. 

Ballooning. — To  work  up  a stock  far  beyond  its  intrinsic  worth  by  favorable 
stories  or  fictitious  sales. 

Bear.— One  who  strives  to  depress  the  price  of  stocks,  etc. , and  for  this  reason 
“ goes  short.” 

Buying  Long. — Buying  in  expectation  of  a rise. 

Breadstuffs. — Any  kind  of  grain,  corn  or  meal. 

292 


THE  INTER-STATE  COMMERCE  LAW. 

Broker. -^An  agent  or  factor;  a middleman  paid  by  commission. 

Brokerage. — A percentage  for  the  purchase  or  sale  of  money  and  stocks. 

Bull. — A broker  or  dealer  who  believes  that  the  value  of  stocks  or  breadstuffs 
will  rise,  and  speculates  for  a rise. 

Call. — Demand  for  payment  of  installments  due  on  stocks. 

Call. — A privilege  given  to  another  to  “ call  ” for  delivery  at  a time  and  price 
fixed. 

Clique. — A combination  of  operators  controlling  large  capital  in  order  to  unduly 
expand  or  break  down  the  market. 

Collaterals. — Any  kind  of  values  given  in  pawn  when  money  is  borrowed. 

Corners. — The  buying  up  of  a large  quantity  of  stocks  or  grain  to  raise  the  price. 
When  the  market  is  oversold,  the  shorts,  if  compelled  to  deliver,  find  themselves  in 
a “corner.” 

Curbstone  Brokers. — Brokers  or  agents  who  are  not  members  of  any  regular 
organization,  and  do  business  mainly  on  the  sidewalk. 

Delivery. — When  stock  or  grain  is  brought  to  the  buyer  in  exact  accordance  with 
the  rules  of  the  Exchange,  it  is  called  a good  delivery.  When  there  are  irregulari- 
ties, the  delivery  is  pronounced  bad,  and  the  buyer  can  appeal  to  the  Exchange. 

Differences  — The  price  at  which  a stock  is  bargained  for  and  the  rate  or  day  of 
delivery  are  ncv  usually  the  same,  the  variation  being  termed  the  difference. 

Factor. — An  agent  appointed  to  sell  goods  on  commission 

Factorage. — Commissions  allowed  factors. 

Flat. — Inactive;  depressed;  dull.  The  flat  value  of  bonds  and  stocks  is  the 
value  without  interest. 

Flyer. — A small  side  operation,  not  employing  one’s  whole  capital. 

Forcing  Quotations  is  where  brokers  wish  to  keep  up  the  price  of  a stock  and  to 
prevent  its  falling  out  of  sight.  This  is  generally  accomplished  by  a small  sale. 

Gunning  a stock  is  to  use  every  art  to  produce  a break  when  it  is  known  that  a 
certain  house  is  heavily  supplied  and  would  be  unable  to  resist  an  attack. 

Kite-Flying. — Expanding  one’s  credit  beyond  wholesome  limits. 

Lame  Duck. — Stock-brokers’  slang  for  one  unable  to  meet  his  liabilities. 

Long. — One  is  long  when  he  carries  stock  or  grain  for  a rise. 

Pointer. — A theory  or  fact  regarding  the  market  on  which  one  bases  a specula- 
tion. 

Pool. — The  stock  or  money  contributed  by  a clique  to  carry  through  a corner. 

Price  Current. — The  prevailing  price  of  merchandise,  stock  or  securities. 

Selling  Short. — To  “ sell  short”  is  to  sell  for  future  delivery  what  one  has  not 
got,  in  hopes  that  prices  will  fall. 

Watering  a stock  is  the  art  of  doubling  the  quantity  of  stock  without  improving 
its  quality.  ^ 

THE  INTER-STATE  COMMERCE  LAW. 

The  Inter-State  Commerce  Act  is  a law  passed  bj  Congress  in 
1887,  for  the  regulation  of  rates  and  the  management  of  inter- 
state commerce.  It  applies  to  carriers  engaged  in  the  transpor- 
tation of  passengers  or  property  wholly  by  railroad  or  partly 
railroad  and  partly  by  water,  from  one  State,  Territory  or  District 
of  the  United  States  to  any  other  State,  Territory  or  District,  or 
to  or  from  a foreign  country.  It  provides  for  the  appointment  of 
a board  of  five  commissioners,  empowered  to  enquire  into  the 
management  of  the  carriers  and  determine  the  reasonableness 
of  their  rates.  A carrier  whose  line  is  entirelj^  within  a State  is 
subject  to  the  act  so  far  as  it  makes  or  accepts  through  rates 
on  inter- State  commerce. 

Among  other  things  the  act  requires  that  all  charges  shall  be 
just  and  reasonable;  that  charges  for  a shorter  distance  shall  not 

293 


THE  LA  WS  OF  CHANCE. 


exceed  those  for  a longer  distance  on  the  same  line  in  the  same 
direction,  when  the  circumstances  and  conditions  are  similar; 
that  there  shall  be  no  unjust  discrimination  as  between  persons 
or  classes  of  traffic  or  localities,  in  the  charges  made  or  in  the 
service  rendered;  that  the  rates  charged  for  transportation  shall 
be  printed,  filed  with  the  Commission  and  kept  for  public 
inspection  at  the  several  stations,  and  that  the  carriers  shall  an- 
nually make  a complete  exhibit  of  their  business  to  the  Commis- 
sion. 

The  act  makes  exceptions  from  its  provisions  of  the  carriage 
of  property  for  the  United  States  or  for  any  State  or  municipal 
government,  or  for  charitable  purposes,  or  to  or  from  fairs  and 
expositions,  and  it  allows  of  the  issuing  of  mileage,  excursion  or 
commutation  tickets,  and  admits  of  the  giving  of  reduced  rates  ta 
ministers  of  religion  and  free  transportation  to  the  officers  and 
employes  of  the  carrier,  and  to  the  principal  officers  of  other 
carriers. 


The  Laws  of  Chance. — Card-players  who  are  continually 
bewailing  their  ill-luck  of  always  receiving  the  same  poor  cards, 
will,  perhaps,  be  reassured  by  knowing  that  the  fifty-two  cards,, 
with  thirteen  to  each  of  the  four  players,  can  be  distributed  in 
53,644,737,756,488,792,839,237,440,000  different  ways,  so  that  there 
would  still  be  a good  stock  of  combinations  to  draw  from,  even 
if  a man  from  Adam’s  time  had  devoted  himself  to  no  other 
occupation  than  that  of  playing  at  cards. 


The  Place  Where  the  Sun  Jumps  a Day. — Chatham 
Island,  lying  off  the  coast  of  New  Zealand,  in  the  South  Pacific 
Ocean,  is  peculiarly  siluated,  as  it  is  one  of  the  habitable  points 
of  the  globe  where  the  dr.y  of  the  week  changes.  It  is  just  in 
the  line  of  demarkation  between  dates.  There,  at  high  12  Sun- 
day, noon  ceases,  and  instantly  Monday  meridian  begins.  Sun- 
day comes  into  a man  s house  on  the  east  side  and  becomes 
Monday  by  the  time  it  pasce:-  out  the  western  door.  A man  sits 
down  to  his  noonday  rlinner  < n Sunday,  and  it  is  Monday  noon 
before  he  finishes  it.  There  Saturday  ir  Sunday  and  Sundaj^  is 
Monday,  and  Monday  becomes  suddenly  transferred  into  Tues- 
day. It  is  a good  place  for  people  who  have  lost  much  time,  for 
by  taking  an  early  start  they  can  always  get  a day  ahead  on 
Chatham  Island.  It  took  philosophers  and  geographers  a long 
time  to  settle  the  puzzle  of  where  Sunday  noon  ceased  and 
Monday  noon  began  with  a man  traveling  west  fifteen  degrees 
an  hour,  or  with  the  sun.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  next 
English  arctic  expedition  will  settle  the  other  mooted  question: 
“Where  will  one  stop  who  travels  northwest  continually?”  * 

294 


INSURANCE 


A STOCK  Insurance  Coinpany  is  one  whose  capital  is 
owned  by  stockholders,  they  alone  sharing  the  profits 
and  they  alone  being  liable  for  losses.  The  business  of 
such  a company,  and  also  of  a mixed  company,  is  managed  by 
directors  chosen  by  the  stockholders.  Policy-holders,  unless  at 
the  same  time  stockholders,  have  no  voice  in  the  management 
of  the  company’s  business  or  in  the  election  of  its  officers. 

A Mutual  Insura7ice  Company  is  one  in  which  the  profits 
and  losses  are  shared  among  the  policy-holders  (the  insured.) 

Mixed  Companies  are  a combination  of  the  foregoing.  In  a 
mixed  company  all  profits  above  a certain  fixed  dividend  are 
usually  divided  among  the  policy-holders. 

Some  mutual  and  mixed  companies  issue  what  are  called  no7t- 
participating  policies.  The  holders  of  these  do  not  share  in  the 
profits  or  losses. 

FIRE  INSURANCE. 

Policies  for  fire  insurance  are  generally  issued  for  a period  of 
one  to  five  years.  Ordinarily,  in  case  of  loss  by  fire,  the 
insured  will  be  paid  the  extent  of  his  loss  up  to  the  amount  of 
insurance,  unless  the  insurance  company  prefer  to  replace  or  re- 
pair the  damaged  property,  which  privilege  is  usually  reserved. 
If  the  policy  contains  the  “average  clause”  the  payment  will 
cover  only  such  portion  of  the  loss  as  the  amount  of  insurance 
bears  to  the  value  of  the  property  insured. 

A Floati7ig  Policy  is  one  which  covers  property  stored  in 
several  buildings  or  places.  The  name  is  applied  more  particu- 
larly to  policies  which  cover  goods  whose  location  may  be 
changed  in  process  of  manufacture,  or  in  the  ordinary  course  of 
business.  The  “average  clause”  is  a usual  condition  of  policies 
of  this  class. 

Short  Rates  are  rates  for  a term  less  than  a year.  If  an  insur- 
ance policy  is  terminated  at  the  request  of  the  policy-holder, 
the  company  retains  the  customaiy  “short  rates”  for  the  time 
the  policy  has  been  in  force,  as  shown  by  the  following  tables: 


Policy  for 

1 year. 

Policy  for 

2 years. 

Policy  for 

3 years. 

Policy  for 

4 years. 

Policy  for 

5 years. 

Charge  this  pro- 
portion of  whole 
Premium. 

1 mo. 

2 mo. 

3 mo. 

4 mo. 

5 mo. 

20  per  cent. 

2 “ 

4 “ 

C “ 

8 “ 

10  “ 

30 

3 “ 

6 “ 

9 “ 

12  “ 

15  “ 

40  “ 

4 

8 ** 

12  “ 

16  “ 

20  “ 

50  “ 

5 “ 

10  ** 

15  “ 

20  “ 

25  “ 

60  “ 

6 “ 

12 

18  “ 

24  “ 

30  “ 

70  “ 

7 ‘‘ 

14  “ 

21  “ 

28  “ 

35  “ 

75  “ 

8 “ 

16  ** 

24  “ 

32  “ 

40  “ 

80  “ 

9 ** 

18  “ 

27  “ 

36  “ 

45  “ 

85  “ 

10  “ 

20  “ 

30  “ 

40  “ 

50  “ 

90  “ 

11 

22  “ 

33  “ 

44  “ 

55  “ 

95  “ [295 

IJVSC/J?AJVCB, 


When  a policy  is  terminated  at  the  option  of  the  company,  a 
ratable  portion  of  the  premium  is  refunded  for  the  unexpired 
term. 

LIFE  INSURANCE. 

In  ordinary  life  policies  a certain  premium  is  to  be  paid 
every  year  until  the  death  of  the  insured,  when  the  policy 
becomes  paj^able  to  the  beneficiary.  There  are  other  kinds  of 
policies,  however,  and  these  are  described  below: 

Limited  Payment  Life  Policy. — Conditions:  Premiums  to  be  paid  annually  for  a 
certain  fixed  number  of  years,  or  until  the  death  of  the  insured,  should  that  occur 
prior  to  the  expiration  of  this  period.  Policy  payable  at  death  of  the  insured. 
Advantages:  Payments  on  this  kind  of  policy  may  all  be  made  while  the  insured  is 
best  able  to  make  them,  and,  if  he  live  to  an  old  age,  the  policy  will  not  be  a con- 
tinual burden,  but  will  rather  be  a source  of  income,  as  the  yearly  dividends  may  be 
taken  out  in  cash  or  added  to  the  amount  of  insurance. 

Ter7n  Life  Policy. — In  this  method  of  insurance,  the  insurance  company  agrees 
to  pay  to  the  beneficiaries  a certain  sum  on  the  death  of  the  insured,  should  that 
event  occur  within  a fixed  term. 

Endowment  Policy. — A combination  of  a Term  Life  Policy  and  a Pure  Endow- 
ment. These  policies  are  issued  for  endowment  periods  of  lo,  15,20,  25,  30  or  35 
years,  and  may  be  paid  up  by  a single  payment,  by  an  annual  premium  during  the 
endowment  period,  or  by  five  or  ten  annual  payments.  Conditions:  i.  Insurance 
during  a stipulated  period,  payable  at  the  death  of  the  insured,  should  that  event 
happen  within  said  period.  2.  An  endowment  of  the  same  amount  as  the  policy, 
payable  to  the  insured,  if  still  living  at  the  end  of  the  period  fixed.  Advantages: 
Limited  term  of  payments;  insurance  during  the  time  when  the  death  of  the  insured 
would  cause  most  embarrassment  to  his  family;  provision  for  old  age,  as  the  amount 
of  the  policy  will  be  paid  to  the  insured  if  still  living,  at  a time  when  advanced  age 
may  make  it  of  great  benefit. 

Annuity  Policies  are  secured  by  a single  cash  payment  and  insure  the  holder  the 
yearly  payment  of  a certain  sum  of  money  during  life. 

Joint  Life  Policy. — An  agreement  to  pay  a certain  sum  on  the  death  of  any  one 
of  two  or  more  persons  thus  insured. 

Non  forfeiting  Policies  do  not  become  void  for  non-payment  of  premiums.  In 
some  companies  all  limited  payment  life  policies,  and  all  endowment  policies,  after 
premiums  for  three  (or  two)  years  have  been  paid,  and  the  original  policy  is  sur- 
rendered within  a certain  time,  provide  for  paid-up  assurance  for  as  many  parts  of 
the  original  amount  assured  as  there  shall  have  been  complete  annual  premiums 
received  in  cash  by  the  company.  Some  companies  voluntarily  apply  all  credited 
dividends  to  the  continuance  of  the  insurance.  Others  apply  the  legal  reserve  to 
the  purchase  of  term  insurance  at  regular  rates. 

Special  Forms. — The  Reserve  Endowment,  Tontine  Investment  and  other  special 
policies  guarantee  to  the  holder  a definite  surrender  value  at  the  termination  of 
certain  periods.  The  surrender  value  of  a policy  is  the  amount  in  cash  which  the 
company  will  pay  the  holder  of  a policy  on  its  surrender — the  legal  reserve  less  a 
certain  per  cent,  for  expenses. 

The  Reserve  of  life  insurance  policies  is  the  present  value  of 
the  amount  to  be  paid  at  death  less  the  present  value  of  all  the 
net  premiums  to  be  paid  in  the  future. 

The  Reserve  Ftmd  of  a life  insurance  company  is  that  sum 
in  hand  which,  invested  at  a given  rate  of  interest,  together  with 
future  premiums  on  existing  policies,  should  be  sufficient  to  meet, 
all  obligations  as  they  become  due.  It  is  the  sum  of  the  separate 
reserves  of  the  several  policies  outstanding. 

The  Exf>ectatio7i  of  Life  is  the  number  of  years  which  one 

29fi 


INSURANCE, 


may  probably  live.  This  average  number  of  years  has  been  de- 
termined from  the  experience  of  insurance  companies. 


Age. 

Expecta- 
tion in 
years. 

di 

bX) 

<J 

Expecta- 

tion in 
years. 

di 

bJO 

< 

Expecta- 

tion in 
years. 

(3 

bX) 

< 

Expecta- 

tion in 
years. 

d> 

bX) 

C 

Expecta- 

tion in 
years. 

0 

28.15 

20 

34.22 

40 

26.04 

60 

15.45 

80 

5.85 

1 

36.78 

21 

33.84 

41 

25.61 

61 

14.86 

81 

5.50 

2 

38.74 

22 

33.46 

42 

25.19 

62 

14.26 

82 

5.16 

3 

40.01 

23 

33.08 

43 

24.77 

63 

13.66 

83 

4.87 

4 

40.73 

24 

32.70 

44 

24.35 

64 

1305 

84 

4.66 

5 

40.88 

25 

32.33 

45 

23.92 

65 

12.43 

85 

4.57 

6 

40.69 

26 

31.93 

46 

23.37 

66 

11.96 

86 

4.21 

7 

40.47 

27 

31.50 

47 

22.83 

67 

11.48 

87 

3.90 

8 

. 40.14 

28 

31.08 

48 

22.27 

68 

11.01 

88 

3.67 

9 

39.72 

29 

30.66 

49 

21.72 

69 

10.50 

89 

3.56 

10 

39.23 

30 

30.25 

50 

21.17 

70 

10.06 

90 

3.43 

11 

38.64 

31 

29.83 

51 

20.61 

71 

9.60 

91 

3.32 

12 

38.02 

32 

29.43 

52 

20.05 

72 

9.14 

92 

3.12 

13 

37.41 

33 

29.02 

53 

19.49 

73 

8.69 

93 

2.40 

14 

36.79 

34 

28.62 

54 

18.92 

74 

8.2i5 

91 

1.98 

15 

36.17 

35 

28.22 

55 

18.35 

75 

7.83 

95 

1.62 

16 

35.76 

36 

27.78 

56 

17.78 

76 

7.40 

17 

35.37 

37 

27.34 

57 

17.20 

77 

6.99 

18 

34.98 

38 

26.91 

58 

16.63 

78 

6.59 

19 

34.59 

39 

26.47 

59 

16.04 

79 

6.21 

MARINE  AND  TRANSIT  INSURANCE. 

Insurance  of  vessels  and  their  cargoes  against  the  perils  of 
navigation  is  termed  Marine  I^isurance. 

Inland  a^id  Transit  Insurance  refer  to  insurance  of  merchan- 
dise while  being  transported  from  place  to  place  either  by  rail 
or  water  routes,  or  both. 

Uisurance  Certificates^  showing  that  certain  property  has 
been  insured  and  stating  the  amount  of  the  insurance  and  the 
name  of  the  party  abroad  who  is  authorized  to  make  the  settle- 
ment, are  issued  by  marine  companies.  They  are  negotiable 
and  are  usually  sent  to  the  consignee  of  the  merchandise  to 
make  the  loss  payable  at  the  port  of  destination. 

The  adjustment  of  marine  policies  in  case  of  loss  is  on  the 
same  principle  as  the  adjustment  of  fire  policies  containing  the 
“average  clause.” 

Ope7i  Policies  are  such  upon  which  ad'ditional  insurances 
may  be  entered  at  different  times. 


Number  of  families  in  the  United  States  (census  of  1880), 
9,945,916;  average  number  to  a square  mile,  3.43.  Number  of 
dwellings,  8,955,842;  average  to  the  square  mile,  3.02.  Number 
of  acres  to  a family,  186.62.  Number  of  persons  to  a family, 
5.04.  Number  of  persons  to  a dwelling,  5.6, 

Number  of  farms  in  the  United  States  in  1880,  4,008,907;  in 
1870,  2,659,985;  in  i860,  2,044,077;  in  1850,  1,449,073. 

297 


INTERNAL  REVENUE. 

The  internal  revenue  of  the  U.  S.  includes  the  taxes  on 
spirits,  tobacco,  etc.,  and  most  of  the  receipts  from  national 
taxes,  except  customs  duties  and  the  receipts  from  the  sale  of 
public  lands,  patent  fees,  postal  receipts,  etc. 

The  Constitution  declares  that  Congress  has  the  power  “to 
lav  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imports  and  excises,”  and  that  they 
shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  U.  S.,  and  provides  that  direct 
taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  States  only  in  proportion 
to  the  population. 

At  the  close  of  the  revolution  raising  money  by  internal 
taxation  was  hardly  thought  of,  and  at  that  time  the  condition  of 
the  people  and  manufactures  would  not  warrant  it.  The  first  in- 
ternal revenue  tax  imposed  by  Congress  was  that  of  March  3, 
1791,  on  distilled  spirits  of  domestic  manufacture,  the  enforce- 
ment of  which  led  to  the  whiskey  insurrection.  In  1798  the  first 
direct  tax  of  the  kind,  one  of  $2,000,000,  was  apportioned  among 
the  States,  and  it  was  proposed  that  it  should  be  levied  on 
dwelling-houses,  slaves  and  land. 

All  internal  taxes  were  repealed  in  1802  in  accordance  with 
the  recommendation  of  President  Jefferson,  and  no  others  were 
authorized  until  1813,  when  the  war  with  England  necessitated  an 
increased  revenue.  These  taxes  were  continued  a few  j^ears  after 
the  war,  but  were  abolished,  and  none  were  levied  until  1861. 

The  civil  war  forced  a renewal  of  the  internal  revenue  system, 
and  in  1861  a direct  tax  of  $20,000,000  was  apportioned  among 
the  States.  On  July  i,  1862,  an  act  was  passed  levying  taxes  on 
all  sorts  and  kinds  of  articles  too  numerous  to  mention.  A few 
industries  were  taxed  out  of  existence  and  all  were  more  or  less 
disturbed,  but  the  people  submitted  without  opposition.  Great 
reductions  were  made  after  the  war  ceased,  and  at  the  present 
time  the  only  subjects  of  internal  revenue  taxation  are  tobacco, 
spirits,  fermented  liquors,  bank  circulation  and  oleomarga- 
rine. 

The  following  have  always  been  exempt  from  taxation  in  the 

U.  S.: 

Public  property  of  both  State  and  nation;  the  property  of  in- 
corporated institutions  of  learning;  houses  of  worship;  cemeteries 
and  the  personal  property  of  individuals,  so  far  as  to  cover  the 
lecessities  of  life. 

In  1792  the  amount  raised  by  internal  revenue  was  $208,942;  in 
}866,  $309,226,813;  in  1887,  $118,837,301. 

You  Cannot  Count  a Trillion. — It  is  impossible  to  count 
A trillion.  Had  Adam  counted  continuously  from  his  creation 
to  the  present  day,  he  would  not  have  reached  that  number,  for 
it  would  take  him  over  9,512  years.  At  the  rate  of  200  a minute, 
there  could  be  counted  12,000  an  hour,  288,000  a day,  and  105,- 
120,000  a year.  298 


HINTS  TO  ADVERTISERS. 


The  first  thing  for  an  advertiser  to  decide  is  the  mediums 
which  reach  the  desired  class  of  customers.  Cheap  mediums  do 
not,  as  a rule,  bring  good  returns,  neither  does  it  follow  that  a 
periodical  claiming  a large  circulation  takes  precedence  over  one 
with  a less  circulation.  The  tone  of  the  publication  and  charac- 
ter of  its  readers  determine  much.  A first  class  periodical  with 
a bona  fide  paid  circulation  is  far  more  desirable  than  a much 
larger  sample  copy  circulation.  People  who  think  enough  of  a, 
publication  to  buy  it  are  very  apt  to  read  it. 

Except  in  special  cases,  hand-bills  and  dodgers  are  of  little  or 
no  account. 

The  advertisement  must  be  attractive,  and  if  lasting  results  be 
desired,  the  goods  must  be  as  represented,  and  the  advertisement 
honestly  worded. 

The  occasional  advertiser  reaps  but  meager  results;  ’tis  the 
constant,  persistent  advertiser  w^ho  reaps  the  most  benefit. 

The  secret  of  success  in  advertising  lies  largely  in  keeping  the 
name  and  goods  constantly  before  the  eye  of  the  public. 

Printer’s  ink  is  beneficial  to  any  business,  but  common  sense 
and  good  judgment  are  absolutely  necessary.  The  shrewd  ad- 
vertiser and  successful  business  man  exercises  as  much  care  and 
discretion  in  placing  his  advertisement  as  he  does  in  buying  his 
goods. 

HOW  TO  COLLECT  A DEBT. 

Thousands  of  dollars  are  lost  every  day  through  negligence  or 
carelessness  of  creditors. 

If  there  is  a fixed  date  for  payment,  be  on  hand  promptly  to  re- 
ceive it. 

If  not  paid,  follow  it  up  closely. 

If  party  cannot  pay  now,  get  a promise  for  another  date  of 
payment.  Pleasant  words  and  a genial  bearing  invariably  are 
more  effective  than  threats  of  legal  measures. 

If  the  debtor  lives  near,  call  and  express  your  urgent  needs  of 
money,  etc. 

If  3^ou  cannot  get  it  all,  take  a part,  and  get  a note  for  the  bal- 
ance. Notes  are  more  easily  handled  and  collected  than  open 
accounts. 

If  the  debtor  is  irresponsible,  get  him  to  secure  an  indorser,  so 
that  you  “can  get  the  money  on  it  at  the  bank,”  etc. 

If  possible,  “know  your  man.” 

With  some  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  be  sharp  and  positive, 
while  the  man  who  honestly  intends  to  pay  can  be  handled  better 
by  pleasant  words,  though  frank  and  business-like. 

If  a debtor  is  at  a distance,  write  a courteous  letter,  inclosing 
bill  or  statement,  requesting  prompt  settlement. 

If  necessary,  a second  or  third  letter  should  be  written. 

299 


HOW  TO  MAKE  CHANGE  QUICKLY. 

Always  consider  the  amount  of  purchase  as  if  that  much 
money  were  already  counted  out,  then  add  to  amount  of 
purchase  enough  small  change  to  make  even  dollars,  counting 
out  the  even  dollars  last  until  full  amount  is  made  up. 

If  the  purchase  amounts  to  57  cents,  and  you  are  handed  $2.00 
in  payment,  countout  43  cents  first  to  make  an  even  dollar.  Then 
lay  out  the  other  dollar. 

Should  the  purchase  be  $3.69,  to  be  taken  out  of  $20,00,  begin 
with  $3.69  as  the  basis  and  make  up  even  $4.00  by  laying  out  31 
cents.  This  31  cents  with  the  amount  of  the  purchase  you  will 
consider  as  $4.00,  and  count  out  even  dollars  to  make  up  the 
$20.00  which  the  customer  has  handed  in. 


MERCHANTS’  COST  AND  PRICE  MARKS. 

All  merchants  use  private  cipher  marks  to  note  cost  or  selling 
price  of  goods.  The  cipher  is  usually  made  up  from  some  short 
word  or  sentence  of  nine  or  ten  letters,  as: 

CORNELIUS,  A. 

123456789  0. 

Five  dollars,  according  to  this  key,  would  be  eaa.  But  gen- 
erally an  extra  letter  is  used  to  prevent  repeating  the  mark  for  0. 
If  the  sign  for  a second  0 in  this  case  were  we  would  have 
eay  instead  of  eaa. 


TIME  IN  WHICH  MONEY  DOUBLES. 


Per 

Cent. 

Simple  Int. 

Comp.  Int. 

Per 

Cent. 

Simple  Int. 

Comp.  Int. 

2 

50  years. 

35  years. 

5 

20  years. 

14  yrs.  75  da. 

2)^ 

40  years. 

28  yrs.  26  da. 

6 

16yrs.  8mos. 

11  yrs.  327  da. 

3 

33  yrs.4mos. 

23  yrs.  164  da. 

7 

14yrs.  104  da. 

10  yrs.  89  da. 

31^ 

28yrs.  208  da. 

20  yrs.  54  da. 

8 

12)^  years. 

9 yrs.  2 da. 

4 

25  years. 

17  yrs.  246  da. 

9 

11  yrs.  40  da. 

8 yrs.  16  da. 

4)^ 

22  yrs.  81  da. 

15yrs.273da. 

10 

10  years. 

7yrs.  lOOda. 

“ A Dollar  Saved,  a Dollar  Earned.” 


The  way  to  accumulate  money  is  to  save  small  sums  with 
regularity.  A small  sum  saved  daily  for  fifty  years  will  grow  at 
the  following  rate: 


Daily  Savings. 


Result. 


Daily  Savings. 


Result. 


One  cent $ 950 

Ten  cents  9,504 

Twenty  cents 19,006 

Thirty  cents 28,512 

Forty  cents 38,015 

Fifty  cents 47,520 


Sixty  cents  $ 57,024 

Seventy  cents 66,528 

Eighty  cents. .......  76,032 

Ninety  cents 85,537 

One  Dollar 475,208 


300 


SHORT  INTEREST  RULES. 

To  find  the  interest  on  a given  sum  for  any  number  of  days, 
at  any  rate  of  interest,  multiply  the  principal  by  the  number  of 
days  and  divide  as  follows: 

At  3 per  cent.,  by  . . . . 

At  4 per  cent.,  by  .... 

At  5 per  cent.,  by  ...  . 

At  6 per  cent.,  by  ...  . 

At  7 per  cent.,  by  ...  . 

At  8 per  cent.,  by  ... 

TRADE  DISCOUNTS. 


120 

At 

9 

per 

cent., 

by  . 

. . 40 

. 90 

At 

10 

per 

cent., 

by.  . 

. . 36 

72 

At 

12 

per 

cent., 

. by  . , 

. . 30 

. 60 

At 

15 

per 

cent.. 

,by.  . 

. . 24 

52 

At 

20 

per 

cent., 

, by  . 

. . 18 

. 45 

Wholesale  houses  usually  invoice  their  goods  to  retailers  at 
‘list”  prices.  List  prices  were  once  upon  a time  supposed  to  be 
retail  prices,  but  of  late  a system  of  “long”  list  prices  has  come 
into  vogue  in  many  lines  of  trade — that  is,  the  list  price  is  made 
exorbitantly  high,  so  that  wholesalers  can  give  enormous  dis- 
counts. These  discounts,  whether  large  or  small,^  are  called 
trade  discounts,  and  are  usually  deducted  at  a certain  rate  per 
cent,  from  the  face  of  invoice. 

The  amount  of  discount  generally  depends  upon  size  of  bill  or 
terms  of  settlement,  or  both.  Sometimes  two  or  more  discounts 
are  allowed.  Thus  30%  and  5%  is  expressed  30  and  5,  meaning 
first  a discount  of  30%  and  then  5%  from  the  remainder. 

30  and  5 is  not  35%,  but  33)^%.  10,  5 and  3 off  means  three 

successive  discounts. 

A wholesale  house  allowing  10,  5 and  3 off  gets  more  for  ite 
goods  than  it  would  at  18  off. 


HOW  TO  DETECT  COUNTERFEIT  MONEY. 

In  the  space  at  disposal  here,  it  is  impossible  of  course  to  give 
a complete  illustrated  counterfeit  detector,  but  the  following 
simple  rules,  laid  down  by  Bank  Note  Examiner  Geo.  R.  Baker, 
will  be  found  extremely  valuable: 

Examine  the  f rm  and  features  of  all  human  figures;  if  graceful,  and  features 
distinct,  examine  the  drapery.  Notice  whether  the  folds  lie  naturally,  and  observe 
whether  the  fine  strands  of  the  hair  are  plain  and  distinct. 

Examine  the  lettering.  In  a genuine  bill  it  is  absolutely  perfect.  There  has 
never  been  a counterfeit  put  out  but  was  more  or  less  defective  in  the  lettering. 

Counterfeiters  rarely,  if  ever,  get  the  imprint  or  engraver’s  name  perfect.  The 
shading  in  the  background  of  the  vignette  and  over  and  around  the  letters  forming 
the  name  of  the  bank,  on  a good  bill,  is  even  and  perfect;  on  a counterfeit  it  is  un- 
even and  imperfect. 

The  die  work  around  the  figures  of  the  denomination  should  be  of  the  same 
character  as  the  ornamental  work  surrounding  it. 

Never  take  a bill  deficient  in  any  of  these  points. 


Big  Trees. — Of  ninety-two  redwood  trees  in  Calaveras  Grove, 
Cal.,  ten  are  over  thirty  feet  in  diameter,  and  eighty-two  have  a 
diameter  of  from  fifteen  to  thirty  feet.  Their  ages  are  estimated 
at  from  1,000  to  3,500  years.  Their  height  ranges  from  150  to 
237  feet. 


301 


BANKERS^  TIMEB  TA^BI^B. 

To  Find  tlie  Number  of  I>ays  Between  Any  Two  Bates  of  tbe  Same  Year,  or  Two  Con* 

secutive  Years, 

Consult  the  following  table.  The  numbers  in  black  letter  at  head  of  the  columns  represent  the  months: — I,  January;  2,  February, 
etc.  In  leap  years,  add  one  to  the  corresponding  numbers  of  all  dates  after  February  28. 


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302 


FACTS  ABOUT  RAILROADS  AND  TRANSPORTATION. 


Twenty  Points  on  American  Railroading. 

I.  There  are  in  the  United  States  150,600  miles  of  railway — 
about  half  the  mileage  of  the  world.  2.  The  estimated  cost  is 
$9,000,000,000.  3.  The  number  of  people  employed  by  Ameri- 
can railways  is  more  than  1,000,000.  4.  The  fastest  time  made 

by  a train  is  422  6-10  miles  in  7 hours,  23  minutes  (443  minutes), 
one  mile  being  made  in  47  11-29  seconds,  on  the  West  Shore 
Railroad,  New  York.  5.  The  cost  of  a high-class  eight-wheel 
passenger  locomotive  is  about  $8,500.  6.  The 

longest  mileage  operated  by  a single  sj^stem  is 
\that  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka  & Santa  Fe — about 
|S,ooo  miles.  7.  The  cost  of  a palace  sleeping-car 
fis  about  $15,000,  or  $17,000  if  “vestibuled.”  8. 
The  longest  railway  bridge  span  in  the  United 
States  is  the  Cantilever  span  in  Poughkeepsie 
bridge — 548  feet.  9.  The  highest  railroad  bridge  in  the  United 
States  is  the  Kinzua  viaduct  on  the  Erie  road — 305  feet  high.  10. 
The  first  locomotive  in  the  United  States  was  built  by  Peter 
Cooper.  II.  The  road  carrying  the  largest  number  of  passengers; 
is  the  Manhattan  Elevated  Railroad,  New  York — 525,000  a day,, 
or  191,625,000  yearly.  12.  The  average  dailj^  earning  of  an  Ameri- 
can locomotive  is  about  $100.  13.  The  longest  American  railway 

tunnel  is  the  Hoosac,  on  the  Fitchburgh  railway — 4^  miles.  14. 
The  average  cost  of  constructing  a mile  of  railroad  at  the  pres- 
ent time  is  about  $30,000.  15.  The  first  sleeping-car  was  used 

upon  the  Cumberland  Valley  Railroad  of  Pennsylvania;  from 
1836  to  1848.  16.  The  chances  of  fatal  accident  in  rail- 

way travel  are  very  slight — one  killed  in  ten  million.  Statistics 
show  more  are  killed  by  falling  out  of  windows  than  in  rail- 
way accidents.  17.  The  line  of  railway  extending  farthest  east 
and  west  is  the  Canadian  Pacific,  running  from  Qiiebec  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  18.  A steel  rail,  with  average  wear,  lasts 
about  eighteen  years.  19.  The  road  carrying  the  largest  number 
of  commuters  is  the  Illinois  Central  at  Chicago — 4,828,128  com.- 
mutation  fares  in  1887.  20.  The  fastest  time  made  between 

Jersey  City  and  San  Francisco  is  3 days,  7 hours,  39  minutes  and 
16  seconds.  Special  theatrical  train,  June,  1876. 

Train  Management. 

(“  Standard  Code.”)  ^ 

A train  while  running  must  display  two  green  flags  by  day 
and  two  green  lights  by  night,  one  on  each  side  of  the  rear  of 
the  train. 

After  sunset,  or  when  obscured  by  fog  or  other  cause,  must 
display  headlight  in  front  and  two  red  lights  in  rear. 

303 


RAILROADS  AND  TRANSPORTATION, 


Two  green  flags  bj  day  and  two  green  lights  by  night,  dis- 
played in  the  places  provided  for  that  purpose  on  the  front  of 
an  engine,  denote  that  the  train  is  followed  by  another  train 
running  on  the  same  schedule  and  entitled  to  the  same  time-table 
rights  as  the  train  carrying  the  signals. 

Two  white  flags  by  day  and  two  white  lights  by  night,  carried 
in  the  same  manner,  denote  that  the  train  is  an  extra. 

A blue  flag  by  day  and  a blue  light  by  night,  placed  on  the 
end  of  a car,  denotes  that  car  inspectors  are  at  work  under  or 
about  the  car  or  train  and  that  it  must  not  be  coupled  to  or 
moved  until  the  blue  signal  is  removed. 


Swinging  Lamp  Signals. 


I.  A lamp  swung  across  the  track  is  the  signal  to  stop.  2.  A 
lamp  raised  and  lowered  vertically  is  the  signal  to  move  ahead. 
3.  A lamp  swung  vertically  in  a circle  across  the  track,  when 
the  train  is  standing,  is  the  signal  to  move  back.  4.  A lamp 
swung  vertically  in  a circle  at  arm's  length  across  the  track, 
when  the  train  is  running,  is  the  signal  that  the  train  has 
parted. 

***  A flag,  or  the  hand,  moved  in  any  of  the  directions  given 
above,  will  indicate  the  same  signal  as  given  by  a lamp. 

Colored  Flag  or  Lantern  Signals — Torpedoes. 

(“Standard  Code.*') 

Red  signifles  danger. 

Green  signifies  caution,  go  slowly. 

White  signifies  safety. 

Green  and  white  signifies  stop  at  flag  stations  for  passengers 
or  freight. 

One  cap  or  torpedo  on  rail  means  stop  immediately. 

Two  caps  or  torpedoes  on  rail  means  reduce  speed  immedi- 
ately and  look  out  for  danger  signal. 

304 


Locomotive  Whistle  Signals. 


Just  one  long  blast  on  the  whistle, this  style, 

Is  a sign  of  nearing  town, 

A.  railroad  crossing  or  junction,  may  be, 

And  this  — , the  brakes  whistled  down. 

Two  long are  just  the  reverse  of  the  last. 

And  this  — — the  engine’s  reply 

When  word  comes  from  the  conductor  to  stop,  — 

A sort  of  cheerful  “Aye!  aye!” 

These  three will  show  when  the  train  comes  apart. 

This means  two  different  things : 

That  the  train  will  back,  or  asks  you  to  note 
Some  special  signal  it  brings. 

These  four belong  to  the  flagman  alone. 

And  these are  meant  for  the  crew; 

But  this  one , when  crossing  a road  at  grade, 

More  nearly  interests  you. 

Five  short  ones say  to  the  flagman  on  guard, 

“Look  out  for  a rear  attack!’* 

And  a lot  like  this that  a heedless  cow 

Or  a deaf  man  is  on  the  track! 

D.  B,  Barnard. 

Speed  on  Railroads. 

Speed  IS  hard  to  average.  An  average  of  48  3-10  miles  per 

hour  is  the  fastest  regular  time  in  the  United  States.  This  is  made  on  the  Pennsyl- 
vania “ limited”  in  its  run  from  Jersey  City  to  Philadelphia,  90  miles,  in  112  min- 
utes. The  Flying  Dutchman  train  is  supposed  to  make  the  fastest  time  in  the 
world,  between  London  and  Bristol,  118^  miles,  in  less  than  two  hours.  The 
average,  however,  of  even  this  fast  train  is  only  59J4  miles  per  hour.  There  are 
several  other  trains  noted  for  remarkably  fast  time  on  short  distances.  Sometimes 
a straight  and  even  grade  for  a distance  of  20  miles  will  permit  a train  to  run  at  the 
rate  of  more  than  a mile  a minute.  One  train  on  the  Canadian  Pacific  road,  from 
Cotaneau  to  Ottawa,  averages  50  miles  an  hour  for  a distance  of  78  miles.  An  aver- 
age of  38J4  miles  an  hour  is  considered  fast  traveling. 

The  largest  and  fastest  passenger  engine  ever  built  is  said  to  have  been  turned 
out  of  the  Rhode  Island  Locomotive  Works,  at  Providence,  for  the  New  York,  Pro- 
vidence & Boston  Railroad  Company.  . She  was  designed  to  make  the  run  from 
Providence  to  Groton,  Conn.,  a distance  of  62 miles,  including  a dead  stop  at 
Mystic  draw-bridge,  as  required  by  the  statutes  of  Connecticut,  in  just  62^  minutes, 
pulling  at  the  same  time  eight  cars,  four  of  them  Pullmans. 


Steam  boating. 

The  first  idea  of  steam  navigation  was  contained  in  a patent 

obtained  in  England  by  Hulls  in  1736. 

Fitch  experimented  in  steam  navigation  on  the  Delaware  river  in  1783-4. 

Oliver  Evans  was  the  next  experimenter  in  steam  navigation  in  1785-6. 

Ramsey  was  also  an  experimenter  in  Virginia  in  steam  navigation  in  1787. 

W.  Symington  made  a trial  on  the  Forth  and  Clyde  with  a small  but  rudely  con- 
structed model  of  a steamer  in  1789. 

Chancellor  Livingston  built  a steamer  on  the  Hudson  in  1797. 
The  first  experiment  in  steamboating  on  the  Thames,  Eng- 
^ land,  was  in  1801. 

Mr.  Symington  repeated  his  experiments  on  the  Thames  with 
^^^success  in  1802. 

Fulton  built  the  steamer,  the  North  River,  and  in  1807  made 
Fa  passage  up  the  Hudson  river  to  Albany  from  New  York  in 
' thirty-three  hours — the  first  steam  navigation  on  record. 

The  next  steamboat  was  the  Car  of  Neptune,  in  1808. 

Fulton  built  the  Orleans  at  Pittsburgh — the  first  steamer  on 

305 


I'ACTS  ABOUT  THE  THERMOMETER, 

western  rivers.  It  was  completed,  and  made  the  voyage  to  New  Orleans  2 00a 
miles,  in  1811.  » 

The  first  steam  vessels  of  Europe  commenced  plying  on  the  Clyde  in  1812. 

The  Savannah,  the  first  steamer  to  cross  the  ocean,  was  of  350  tons  burden  and 
sailed  for  Liverpool  from  Savannah,  Ga.,  July  15,  i8ig.  ’ 

Capt.  Johnson  was  paid  £10,000,  or  $50,000,  for  making  the  first  steam  voyage  to 
India.  The  voyage  was  made  on  the  steamer  Enterprise,  which  sailed  from  Fal- 
mouth, England,  Aug.  16,  1825. 

The  first  war  steamer  was  built  in  England  in  1838. 


Capacity  of  a Ten-Ton  Freight  Car. 


Whisky 60  barrels. 

Salt 70  “ 

Lime 70  “ 

Flour 90  “ 

Eggs 130  to  160  “ 

Flour 200  sacks. 

Cattle 18  to  20  head. 

Hogs 50  to  60 

Sheep 80  to  100  “ 


Lumber,  green. 
Lumber,  dry. . . 

Barley. 

Wheat 

Apples 

Corn 

Potatoes 

Oats 

Bran 


6,000  feet. 
10,000  feet. 
300  bush. 


340 

370 

400 

430 

680 

1,000 


(( 

u 

(( 

i( 

u 

ii 


Facts  About  the  Thermometer. 

Reaumur. 

Centigrade. 

Fahrenheit. 

Freezing  Point 

0 

0 

32 

Vine  Cultivation 

8 

10 

50 

Cotton  Cultivation 

. 16 

20 

68 

Temperature  of  Brazil. . . 

. 24 

30 

87 

Hatching  Eggs 

. 32 

40 

104 

40 

50 

122 

48 

60 

140 

56 

70 

158 

64 

80 

176 

72 

90 

194 

Water  boils 

. 80 

100 

212 

Ice  melts  at  32®;  temperature  of  globe,  50®;  blood  heat,  98°;  alcohol  boils,  174®; 
water  boils,  212°;  lead  melts,  594°;  heat  of  common  fire,  1,140°;  brass  melts,  2,233®; 
iron  melts,  3,479°. 


Comparison  of  Thermometric  Scales. 

To  convert  the  degrees  of  Centigrade  into  those  of  Fahrenheit,  multiply  by  9, 
divide  by  5,  and  add  32. 

To  convert  degrees  of  Centigrade  into  those  of  Reaumur,  multiply  by  4,  and 
divide  by  5. 

To  convert  degrees  of  Fahrenheit  into  those  of  Centigrade,  deduct  32,  multiply  by 
5,  and  divide  by  9. 

To  convert  degrees  of  Fahrenheit  into  those  of  Reaumur,  deduct  32,  divide  by 
9,  and  multiply  by  4. 

To  convert  degrees  of  Reaumur  into  those  of  Centigrade,  multiply  by  5,  and 
divide  by  4. 

To  convert  degrees  of  Reaumur  into  those  of  Fahrenheit,  multiply  by  9,  divide 
by  4,  and  add  32. 

In  De  Lisle’s  thermometer,  used  in  Russia,  the  gradation  begins  at  boiling  point, 
which  is  marked  zero,  and  the  freezing  point  is  150. 

306 


FREEZING,  FUSING  AND  BOILING  POINTS. 


Substances. 

Reaumur. 

Centi- 

grade. 

Fahren- 

heit. 

Freezing — 

Bromine  freezes  at 

—160 

—200 

— 40 

Oil  Anise 

8 

10 

50 

‘‘  Olive 

8 

10 

50 

“ Rose  

12 

15 

60 

Quicksilver 

—31.5 

—39.4 

—39 

Water 

— 1 

0 

32 

Fusing — 

Bismuth  metal  fuses  at 

200 

264 

507 

Cadmium 

248,8 

315 

592 

Copper 

874.6 

1093 

2000 

Gold 

961 

1200 

2200 

Iodine 

92 

115 

239 

Iron 

1230 

1538 

2800 

Lead 

255.5 

325 

617 

Potassium. 

46 

58 

136 

Phosphorus 

34 

44 

111 

Silver 

816.8 

1021 

1870 

“ Nitrate 

159 

198 

389 

Sodium  

72 

90 

194 

Steel  

1452 

1856 

3300 

Sulphur 

72 

90 

194 

Tin 

173 

230 

446 

Zinc 

328 

410 

770 

Boiling — 

Alcohol  boils  at  

63 

78 

173 

Bromine 

50 

53 

145 

Ether 

28 

35 

95 

“ Nitrous 

11 

14 

57 

Iodine 

140 

175 

347 

Olive  Oil  

252 

315 

600 

Quicksilver 

280 

350 

662 

Water 

80 

100 

212 

Dangers  of  Foul  Air. — If  the  condensed  breath  collected 
on  the  cool  window  panes  of  a room  where  a number  of  persons 
have  been  assembled  be  burned,  a smell  as  of  singed  hair  will 
show  the  presence  of  organic  matter,  and  if  the  condensed  breath 
be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  windows  for  a few  days,  it  will  be 
found,  on  examination  bj  the  microscope,  that  it  is  alive  with 
animaculse.  It  is  the  inhalation  of  air  containing  such  putrescent 
matter  which  causes  half  of  the  sick-headaches,  which  might  be 
avoided  by  a circulation  of  fresh  air. 

307 


FREEZING  MIXTURES  WITHOUT  ICE. 

Use  water  not  warmer  than  50®  Fahrenheit. 


Down 

TO 

Change 

500 

40 

460 

50 

10 

40 

50 

4 

46 

50 

— 3 

53 

50 

— 7 

57 

50 

—12 

62 

50 

3 

47 

50 

—10 

60 

50 

—14 

64 

Mixtures. 


Nitrate  Ammonia,  } ^ u ) 

Water,  each  one  part J 

Muriate  Ammonia,  } ^ n . 

Nitrate  of  Potash,  > ’ 

Water,  sixteen  parts 

Muriate  Ammonia,  } • c i.  1 

Nitrate  of  Potash,  } ' 1 

Sulphate  of  Soda,  eight  parts j 

Water,  sixteen  parts J 

Sulphate  of  Soda,  three  parts 

Dilute  Nitric  Acid,  two  parts 

Nitrate  of  Ammonia,  1 
Carbonate  Soda,  >•  each  one  part . 

Water,  ) 

Phosphate  Soda,  nine  parts ) 

Dilute  Nitric  Acid,  four  parts f 

Sulphate  of  soda,  five  parts [ 

Dilute  Sulphuric  Acid,  four  parts J 

Sulphate  of  Soda,  six  parts ^ 

Muriate  Ammonia,  four  parts ! 

Nitrate  of  Potash,  two  parts. f 

Dilute  Nitric  Acid,  four  parts J 

Sulphate  of  Soda,  six  parts 

Nitrate  of  Ammonia,  five  parts 

Dilute  Nitric  Acid,  four  parts 


THE  HEBREW  RACE. 

The  Hebrew  race  is  distributed  over  the  Eastern  continent  as 
follows  : 

In  'Europe  there  are  5,400,000;  in  France,  63,000 ; Germany, 
c;62,ooo,  of  which  Alsace- Loraine  contains  39,000  ; Austro- 
Hungary,  1,544,000;  Italy,  40,000;  Netherlands,  82,000;  Rou- 
mania,  265,000  ; Russia,  2,552,000  ; Turkey,  105.000,  and  in  other 
countries  35,000,  Belgium  containing  the  smallest  number,  only 
3,000. 

In  Asia  there  are  319,000  ; Asiatic  Turkey,  47,000,  in  Palestine 
there  being  25,000  ; Asiatic  Russia,  47,000  ; Persia,  18,000  ; Mid- 
dle Asia,  14,000;  India,  19,000,  and  China,  1,000. 

Africa  contains  350,000  ; Egypt,  8,000  ; Tunis,  55,000 ; Algiers, 
35,000  ; Morocco,  60,000  ; Tripoli,  6,000,  and  Abyssinia,  200,000. 

The  entire  number  of  Hebrews  in  the  world  is  nearly  ^300,000. 

308 


PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 


HE  principal  methods  of  developing  the  physique  now  pre- 


scribed by  trainers  are  exercise  with  dumbbells,  the  bar  bell 


and  the  chest  weight.  The  rings  and  horizontal  and  paral- 
lel bars  are  also  used, but  not  nearly  to  the  extent  that  they  formerly 
were.  The  movement  has  been  all  in  the  direction  of  the  sim- 
plification of  apparatus;  in  fact,  one  well-known  teacher  of  the 
Boston  Gynmasium  when  asked  his  opinion  said:  “Four  bare 
walls  and  a floor,  with  a well-posted  instructor,  is  all  that  is 
really  required  for  a gymnasium.” 

Probably  the  most  important  as  well  as  the  simplest  appliance 
for  gymnasium  work  is  the  wooden  dumbbell,  which  has  dis- 
placed the  ponderous  iron  bell  of  former  days.  Its  weight  is 
from  three-quarters  of  a pound  to  a pound  and  a half, 
and  with  one  in  each  hand  a variety  of  motions  can  be  gone 
through,  which  are  of  immense  benefit  in  building  up  or  toning 
down  every  muscle  and  all  vital  parts  of  the  body. 

The  first  object  of  an  instructor  in  taking  a beginner  in  hand 
is  to  increase  the  circulation.  This  is  done  by  exercising  the  ex- 
tremities, the  first  movement  being  one  of  the  hands,  after 
which  come  the  Avrists,  then  the  arms,  and  next  the  head  and 
feet.  As  the  circulation  is  increased  the  necessity  for  a larger 
supplj"  of  oxygen,  technicall  v called  “oxygen-hunger,”  is  created, 
which  is  only  satisfied  by  breathing  exercises,  which  develop 
the  lungs.  After  the  circulation  is  in  a satisfactory  condition, 
the  dumbbell  instructor  turns  his  attention  to  exercising  the 
great  muscles  of  the  body,  beginning  with  those  of  the  back, 
strengthening  which  holds  the  body  erect,thus  increasing  the  chest 
capacity,  invigorating  the  digestive  organs,  and,  in  fact,  all  the 
vital  functions.  By  the  use  of  very  light  weights  an  equal  and 
symmetrical  development  of  all  parts  of  the  body  is  obtained, 
and  then  there  are  no  sudden  demands  on  the  heart  and  lungs. 

After  the  dumbbell  comes  exercise  with  the  round,  or  bar 
bell.  This  is  like  the  dumbbell,  with  the  exception  that  Jhe  bar 
connecting  the  balls  is  four  or  five  feet,  instead  of  a few  inches 
in  length.  Bar  bells  weigh  from  one  to  two  pounds  each,  and 
are  found  most  useful  in  building  up  the  respiratory  and  diges- 
tive systems,  their  especial  province  being  the  strengthening  of 
the  erector  muscles  and  increasing  the  flexibility  of  the  chest. 

Of  all  fixed  apparatus  in  use  the  pulley  weight  stands  easily 
first  in  importance.  These  weights  are  available  for  a greater 
variety  of  objects  than  any  other  gymnastic  appliance,  and  can 
be  used  either  for  general  exercise  or  for  strengthening  such 
muscles  as  most  require  it.  With  them  a greater  localization  is 
possible  than  with  the  dumbbell,  and  for  this  reason  they  are 
recommended  as  a kind  of  supplement  to  the  latter.  As  chest  de- 


309 


T.  The  bar  bell — chest  expander.  2.  Anterior  muscular  de- 
veloper. 3.  Developing  loins  and  lumbar  region- — aid  to  diges- 
tion. 4.  Side  and  loin  development.  5.  Giant  pulley  exercise 
— for  elev^ating  right  side  of  chest.  6.  Developing  muscles  that 
hold  the  shoulders  back.  7.  Developing  muscles  of  front  upper 
iChest.’^  8.  Posterior  development — to  make  one  erect.  [310 


PH  r SI  CAL  EXERCISE. 


velopers  and  correctors  of  round  shoulders  they  are  most  effec- 
tive. As  the  name  implies,  they  are  simply  weights  attached  to 
ropes,  whicli  pass  over  pulleys,  and  are  provided  with  handles. 
The  common  pulley  is  placed  at  about  the  height  of  the  shoulder 
of  an  average  man,  but  recently  those  which  can  be  adjusted  to 
any  desired  height  have  been  very  generally  introduced. 

When  more  special  localization  is  desired  than  can  be  ob- 
tained by  means  of  the  ordinary  apparatus,  what  is  known  as  the 
double-action  chest  weight  is  used.  This  differs  from  the  or- 
dinary kind  in  being  provided  with  several  pullej^s,  so  that  the 
strain  may  come  at  different  angles.  Double-action  weights 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes — high,  low  and  side  pulleys — 
each  with  its  particular  use. 

The  highest  of  all,  known  as  the  giant  pulleys,  are  made  es- 
pecially for  developing  the  muscles  of  the  back  and  chest,  and  by 
stretching  or  elongating  movements  to  increase  the  interior' 
capacity  of  the  chest.  If  the  front  of  the  chest  is  full  and  the 
back  or  side  chest  deficient,  the  pupil  is  set  to  work  on  the  giant 
pulley.  To  build  up  the  side-walls  he  stands  with  the  back  to 
the  pulley-box  and  the  left  heel  resting  against  it;  the  handle  is 
grasped  in  the  right  hand  if  the  right  side  of  the  chest  is  lacking 
in  development,  and  then  drawn  straight  down  by  the  side;  a 
step  forward  with  the  right  foot,  as  long  as  possible,  is  taken,  the 
line  brought  as  far  to  the  front  and  near  the  floor  as  can  be  done, 
and  then  the  arm,  held  stiff,  allowed  to  be  drawn  slowly  up  by 
the  weight.  To  exercise  the  left  side  the  same  process  is  gone 
through  with,  the  handle  grasped  in  the  left  hand.  Another 
kind  of  giant  pulley  is  that  which  allows  the  operator  to  stand 
directly  under  it,  and  is  used  for  increasing  the  lateral  diameter 
of  the  chest.  The  handles  are  drawn  straight  down  by  the  sides, 
the  arms  are  then  spread  and  drawn  back  by  the  weights.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  high  pulleys  are  most  used  for  correcting  high, 
round  shoulders;  low  pulleys  for  low,  round  shoulders;  side  pul- 
leys for  individual  high  or  low  shoulders,  and  giant  pulleys  for 
the  development  of  the  walls  of  the  chest  and  to  correct  spinal 
curvature. 

The  traveling  rings,  a line  of  iron  rings  covered  with  rubber 
and  attached  to  long  ropes  fastened  to  the  ceiling  some  ten  feet 
apart,  are  also  valuable  in  developing  the  muscles  of  the  back, 
arms  and  sides.  The  first  ring  is  grasped  in  one  hand  and  a 
spring  taken  from  an  elevated  platform.  The  momentum  carries 
the  gymnast  to  the  next  ring,  which  is  seized  with  the  free  hand, 
and  so  the  entire  length  of  the  line  is  traversed.  The  parallel 
bars,  low  and  high,  the  flying  rings,  the  horizontal  bar  and  the 
trapeze  all  have  their  uses,  but  of  late  years  they  have  been  rele- 
gated to  a position  of  distinct  inferiority  to  that  now  occcupied 
by  the  dumbbells  and  pulley  weights.  (311] 


MEDICINE  AND  HYGIENE 


Diseases  and  tlielr  Remedies -Prescriptions  tiy  Eminent  Practitioners. 

IT  should  be  clearly  understood,  that  in  all  cases  of  disease, 
the  advice  of  a skillful  physician  is  of  the  first  importance. 
It  is  not,  therefore,  intended  by  the  following  information 
to  supersede  the  important  and  necessary  practice  of  the  medi- 
cal man;  but  rather,  by  exhibiting  the  treatment  required,  to 
show  in  what  degree  his  aid  is  imperative.  In  cases,  however, 
where  the  disorder  may  be  simple  or  transient,  or  in  which  re- 
mote residence,  or  other  circumstances,  may  deny  the  privilege 
of  medical  attendance,  the  following  particulars  will  be  found 
of  the  utmost  value.  Moreover,  the  hints  given  upon  what 
should  be  avoided  will  be  of  great  service  to  the  patient,  since 
the  physiological  is  no  less  important  than  the  medical  treatment 
of  disease.  The  numbers  refer  to  prescriptions  on  pp.  315-318. 

Apoplexy — Lay  the  head  upon  a bag  of  pounded  ice,  imme- 
diate and  large  bleeding  from  the  arm,  cupping  neck,  leeches  to  the  temples,  aperi- 
ents Nos.  I and  7,  one  or  two  drops  of  cotton  oil  rubbed  or  dropped  on  the  tongue. 
Avoid  excesses,  intemperance,  animal  food. 

Bile,  Bilious,or  Liver  Complaints — Abstinence  from  malt 

liquor,  cool  homoeopathic  cocoa  for  drink,  no  tea  or  coffee,  few  vegetables,  no  broths 
or  soups;  lean  juicy  meat  not  overcooked  for  dinner,  with  stale  bread  occasionally 
and  a slice  of  toasted  bacon  for  breakfast.  Nos.  44  and  45. 

Chicken  Pox — Mild  aperients.  No.  4,.  succeeded  by  No.  7,  and 

No.  8,  if  much  fever  accompany  the  eruption. 

Chilblains — Warm,  dry  woolen  clothing  to  exposed  parts  in 

cold  weather,  as  a preventive.  In  the  first  stage,  friction  with  No.  48,  used  cold. 
When  ulcers  form  they  should  be  washed  twice  daily  with  carbolic  soap  and  dressed 
with  benzoted  zinc  ointment.  Or,  chilblains  in  every  stage,  whether  of  simple  in- 
flammation or  open  ulcer,  may  always  be  successfully  treated  by  Goulard’s  extract, 
used  pure  or  applied  on  lint  twice  a day. 

Common  Continued  Fever — Aperients;  in  the  commence- 
ment No.  I,  followed  by  No.  7;  then  diaphoretics.  No.  8,  and  afterwards  tonics.  No. 
13,  in  the  stage  of  weakness.  Avoid  all  excesses. 

Common  Cough — The  linctus.  No.  42  or  No.  43,  abstinence 

from  malt  liquor,  and  protection  from  cold,  damp  air.  Avoid  cold,  damp,  and 
draughts. 

Constipation — The  observance  of  a regular  period  of  evac- 
uating the  bowels,  which  is  most  proper  in  the  morning  after  breakfast.  The  use  of 
mild  aperients.  No.  37,  and  brown  bread  instead  of  white.  T here  should  be  an  entire 
change  in  the  dietary  for  a few  days  while  taking  opening  medicine. 

Consumption — The  disease  may  be  complicated  with  various 

morbid  conditions  of  the  lungs  and  heart,  which  require  appropriate  treatment. 
Take  cod  liver  oil,  malt  and  whisky.  To  allay  the  cough.  No.  32  is  an  admirable 
remedy.  Avoid  cold,  damp,  excitement  and  over-exertion. 

Convulsions  (Children) — If  during  teething,  free  lancing 

of  the  gums,  the  warm  bath,  cold  applications  to  the  head,  leeches  to  the  temples,  an 
emetic,  and  a laxative  clyster.  No.  20. 

Croup — Leeches  to  the  throat,  with  hot  fomentations  as  long 

as  the  attack  lasts;  the  emetic.  No.  16,  afterwards  the  aperient.  No.  5.  Avoid  cold 
and  damp.  Keep  the  air  in  the  sick-room  moistened  with  steam. 

A Simple  Croup  Remedy. — Take  the  white  of  an  egg,  stir  it 

312 


MEDICINE  AND  HYGIENE, 


thoroughly  into  a small  quantity  of  sweetened  water,  and  give  it  in  repeated  doses 
until  a cure  is  effected.  If  one  egg  is  not  sufficient,  a second,  or  even  a third  should 
be  used. 

Dropsy — Evacuate  the  w^ater  bj  means  of  No.  lO,  and  by  rub- 
bing camphorated  oil  into  the  body  night  and  morning. 

Epilepsy — If  accompanied  or  produced  by  fullness  of  the  ves- 
sels of  the  head,  leeches  to  the  temples,  blisters,  and  No.  i and  No.  7.  If  from  de- 
bility or  confirmed  epilepsy,  the  mixture  No.  18.  Avoid  drinking  and  excitement. 
Let  the  patient  alone  during  the  convulsion. 

Eruptions  on  the  Face — The  powder,  No.  30,  internally, 

sponging  the  face  with  the  lotion  No.  31.  Avoid  excesses  in  diet. 

Erysipelas — Aperients,  if  the  patient  be  strong.  No.  i,  fol- 
lowed by  No.  7,  then  tonics.  No.  27.  No.  27  may  be  used  from  the  commencement 
for  weak  subjects. 

Faintness — Effusion  of  cold  water  on  the  face,  stimulants  to 

the  nostrils,  pure  air,  and  the  recumbent  position;  afterwards,  avoidance  of  the  excit- 
ing cause.  Avoid  excitement. 

Frost-bite  and  Frozen  Limbs — No  heating  or  stimulating 

liquors  must  be  given.  Rub  the.  parts  affected  with  ice,  cold,  or  snow  water,  and 
lay  the  patient  on  a cold  bed. 

Gout — The  aperients  No.  i,  followed  by  No.  24,  bathing  the 

parts  with  gin-and-water;  for  drink,  weak  tea  or  coffee.  Warmth  by  flannels.  Ab- 
stain from  wines,  spirits,  and  animal  food. 

Gravel — No.  5,  followed  by  No.  7,  the  free  use  of  magnesia  as 

an  aperient.  The  pill  No.  22.  Abstain  from  fermented  drinks  and  hard  water. 
Another  form  of  gravel  must  be  treated  by  mineral  acids,  given  three  times  a day. 

Whooping  Cough — ‘Whooping  cough  may  be  complicated 

with  congestion  or  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  or  convulsions,  and  then  becomes  a 
serious  disease.  If  uncomplicated,  No.  43. 

Hysterics — The  fit  may  be  prevented  by  the  administration 

of  thirty  drops  of  laudanum,  and  as  many  of  ether.  When  it  has  taken  place,  open 
the  windows,  loosen  the  tight  parts  ofihe  dress,  sprinkle  cold  water  on  the  face,  etc. 
A glass  of  wine  or  cold  water  when  the  patient  can  swallow.  Avoid  excitement  and 
tight  lacing. 

Indigestion — The  pills  No.  2,  with  the  mixture  No.  18,  at  the 

same  time  abstinence  from  veal,  pork,  mackerel,  salmon,  pastry,  and  beer;  for  drink, 
homoeopathic  cocoa,  a glass  of  cold  spring  water  the  first  thing  every  morning. 
Avoid  excesses. 

Inflammation  of  the  Bladder — Aperients  No.  5 and  No. 

7,  the  warm  bath,  afterwards  opium;  the  pill  No.  11,  three  times  a day  till  relieved. 
Avoid  fermented  liquors,  etc.  Large  quantities  of  water  should  be  taken,  especially 
spring  water  containing  lithia. 

Inflammation  of  the  Bowels — Leeches,  blisters,  fomenta- 
tions, hot  baths,  iced  drinks,  the  pills  No.  19;  move  the  bowels  with  clysters,  if  neces- 
sary, No.  20.  Avoid  cold,  indigestible  food,  etc. 

Inflammation  of  the  Brain — Application  of  cold  to  the 

head,  bleeding  from  the  temples  or  back  of  the  neck  by  leeches  or  cupping;  aper- 
ients No.  I,  followed  by  No.  7,  No.  15.  Avoid  excitement,  study,  intemperance. 

Inflammation  of  the  Kidneys — Leeches  over  the  seat  of 

pain,  aperients  No.  5,  followed  by  No.  49;  the  warm  bath.  Avoid  violent  exercise, 
rich  living. 

Inflammation  of  the  Liver — Leeches  over  the  right  side, 

the  seat  of  pain,  blisters,  aperients  No.  i,  followed  by  No.  7,  afterwards  the  pills  No. 
19,  till  the  gums  are  slightly  tender.  Avoid  cold,  damp,  intemperance,  and  anxiety. 

Inflammation  of  the  Lungs — Leeches  to  seat  of  pain, 

313 


MEDICINE  AND  HTGIENE. 


succeeded  by  a blister;  the  demulcent  mixture.  No.  14,  to  allay  the  cough,  with  the 
powders  No.  15,  whisky  and  milk.  Avoid  cold,  damp,  and  draughts. 

Inflammation  of  the  Stomach — Leeches  to  the  pit  of  the 

stomach,  followed  by  fomentations,  cold  iced  water  for  drink,  bowels  to  be  evacuated 
by  clysters;  abstinence  from  all  food  except  cold  gruel,  milk  and  water.  Avoid  ex- 
cesses and  condiments. 

Inflammatory  Sore  Throat — Leeches  and  blisters  ex- 
ternally, aperients  No.  i,  followed  by  number  7;  gargle  to  clear  the  throat.  No.  17. 
Avoid  cold,  damp,  and  draughts. 

Inflamed  Eyes — The  bowels  to  be  regulated  by  No.  5,  drop 

5%  cocaine  solution  in  the  eye  every  three  or  four  hours,  the  eyelto  be  bathed  with 
No.  35. 

Influenza — No.  4 as  an  aperient  and  diaphoretic.  No.  14 

to  allay  fever  and  cough.  No,  28  as  a tonic,  when  weakness  only  remains.  Avoid 
cold  and  damp,  use  clothing  suited  to  the  changes  of  temperature. 

Intermittent  Fever,  or  Ague — Take  No.  13  during  the 

intermission  of  the  paroxysm  of  the  fever;  keeping  the  bowels  free  with  a wine  glass 
of  No,  7.  Avoid  bad  air,  stagnant  pools,  etc. 

Itch — The  ointment  No.  28,  or  lotion  No.  29. 

Jaundice — The  pills  No.  i,  afterwards  the  mixture  No.  7, 

drinking  freely  of  dandelion  tea. 

Looseness  of  the  Bowels  (English  Cholera) — One  pill 
No.  19,  repeated  if  necessary;  afterwards  the  mixture  No.  21.  Avoid  unripe  fruits, 
acid  drinks,  ginger  beer;  wrap  flannel  around  the  abdomen. 

Measles — A well-ventilated  room,  aperients  No.  4,  with 

No.  34  to  allay  the  cough  and  fever. 

Menstruation  (Excessive) — No.  40  during  the  attack, 

with  rest  in  the  recumbent  position;  in  the  intervals.  No.  39. 

Menstruation  (Scanty) — In  strong  patients,  cupping  the 

loins,  exercise  in  the  open  air,  No.  40,  the  feet  in  warm  water  before  the  expected 
period,  the  pills  No.  38;  in  weak  subjects  No.  39.  Gentle  and  regular  exercise. 
Avoid  hot  rooms,  and  too  much  sleep.  In  cases  of  this  description  it  is  desirable  to 
apply  to  a medical  man  for  advice.  It  may  be  useful  to  many  to  point  out  that  penny- 
royal tea  is  a simple  and  useful  medicine  for  inducing  the  desired  result. 

Menstruation  (Painful) — No.  41  during  the  attack;  in 

the  intervals.  No.  38  twice  a week,  with  No.  39.  Avoid  cold,  mental  excite- 
hient,  etc. 

Mumps — Fomentation  with  a decoction  of  camomiles  and 

poppy  heads;  No.  4 as  an  aperient,  and  No.  9 during  the  stage  of  fever.  Avoid 
cold,  and  attend  to  the  regularity  of  the  bowels. 

Nervousness — Cheerful  society,  early  rising,  exercise  in  the 

open  air,  particularly  on  horseback,  and  No.  12.  Avoid  excitement,  study,  and  late 
meals. 

Palpitation  of  the  Heart — The  pills  No.  2,  with  the 

mixture  No.  12. 

Piles — The  paste  No.  34,  at  the  same  time  a regulated  diet. 

When  the  piles  are  external,  or  can  be  reached,  one  or  two  applications  of  Goulard’s 
extract,  with  an  occasional  dose  of  lenitive  electuary,  will  generally  succeed  in  cur- 
ing them. 

Quinsy — A blister  applied  all  around  the  throat;  an  emetic, 

No.  16,  commonly  succeeds  in  breaking  the  abscess;  afterwards  the  gargle  No.  17. 
Avoid  cold  and  damp. 

Rheumatism — Bathe  the  affected  parts  with  No.  23,  and  take  ‘ 

internally  No.  24,  with  No.  25  at  bedtime,  to  ease  pain,  etc.  Avoid  damp  and  cold, 
wear  flannel. 


314 


MEDICINE  AND  HYGIENE. 

Rickets — The  powder  No.  33,  a dry,  pure  atmosphere,  a 

nourishing  diet. 

Ringworm — The  lotion  No.  32,  with  the  occasional  use  of  the 

powder  No.  5.  Fresh  air  and  cleanliness. 

Scarlet  Fever — Well-ventilated  room,  sponging  the  body 

when  hot  with  cold  or  tepid  vinegar,  or  spirit  and  water;  aperients.  No.  4;  diapho- 
retics, No.  8.  If  dropsy  succeed  the  disappearance  of  the  eruption,  frequent  purg- 
ing with  No.  5,  succeeded  by  No.  7. 

Scrofula — Pure  air,  light  but  warm  clothing,  diet  of  fresh 
animal  food;  bowels  to  be  regulated  by  No.  6 and  No.  26,  taken  regularly  for  a con- 
siderable time. 

Scurvy — Fresh  animal  and  vegetable  food,  and  the  free  use 

of  ripe  fruits  and  lemon  juice.  Avoid  cold  and  damp. 

Smallpox — A well-ventilated  apartment,  mild  aperients;  if 
fever  be  present.  No.  7,  succeeded  by  diaphoretics  No.  8,  and  tonics  No.  13  in  the 
stage  of  debility,  or  decline  of  the  eruption. 

St.  Vitus  Dance — The  occasional  use,  in  the  commence- 
ment, of  No.  5,  followed  by  No.  7,  afterwards  No.  46. 

Thrush — One  of  the  powders  No.  6 every  other  night;  in  the 
intervals  a dessertspoonful  of  the  mixture  No.  18  three  times  a day;  white  spots  to 
be  dressed  with  the  honey  of  borax. 

Tic  Doloreux — Regulate  the  bowels  with  No.  3,  and  take, 

in  the  intervals  of  pain.  No.  27.  Avoid  cold,  damp,  and  mental  anxiety. 

Toothache — Continue  the  use  of  No.  3 for  a few  alternate 

days.  Apply  liquor  ammoniae  to  reduce  the  pain,  and  when  that  is  accomplished, 
fill  the  decayed  spots  with  silver  succedaneum  without  delay,  or  the  pain  will  re- 
turn. A drop  of  creosote,  or  a few  drops  of  chloroform  on  cotton,  applied  to  the 
tooth,  or  a few  grains  of  camphor  placed  in  the  decayed  opening,  or  camphor  moist- 
ened with  turpentine,  will  often  afford  instant  relief. 

Typhus  Fever — Sponging  the  body  with  cold  or  tepid  water, 
a well-ventilated  apartment,  cold  applications  to  the  head  and  temples.  Aperients 
No.  4,  with  refrigerants  No.  9,  tonics  No.  13  in  the  stage  of  debility. 

Water  on  the  Brain — Local  bleeding  by  means  of  leeches, 

blisters,  aperients  No.  5,  and  mercurial  medicines.  No.  15. 

Whites — The  mixture  No.  36,  with  the  injection  No.  37. 

Clothing  light  but  warm,  moderate  exercise  in  the  open  air,  country  residence. 

Worms  in  the  Intestines — The  aperient  No.  5,  followed 

by  No.  7,  afterwards  the  free  use  of  Ikne  water  and  milk  in  equal  parts,  a pint  daily. 
Avoid  unwholesome  food. 


PRESCRIPTIONS. 

To  be  used  in  the  cases  enumerated  under  the  head  '‘’’Diseases  ” 
{pages  312-315.) 

The  following  prescriptions,  originally  derived  from  various 
prescribers’  Pharmacopoeias,  and  now  carefully  revised,  embody 
the  favorite  remedies  employed  by  the  most  eminent  physicians.: 

1.  Take  of  powdered  aloes,  nine  grains;  extract  of  colocynth, 

compound,  eighteen  grains;  calomel,  nine  grains;  tartrate  of  antimony,  two  grains; 
mucilage,  sufficient  to  make  a mass,  which  is  divided  into  six  pills;  two  to  be  taken 
every  twenty-four  hours,  till  they  act  thoroughly  on  the  bowels;  in  cases  of  inflam- 
mation, apoplexy,  etc. 

2.  Powdered  rhubarb,  Socotrine  aloes,  and  gum  mastic,  each 

one  scruple;  make  into  twelve  pills;  one  before  and  one  after  dinner. 

315 


MEDICINE  AND  HTGIENE, 


3.  Compound  extractor  colocjnth,  extract  of  jalap,  and  Castile 

soap,  of  each  one  scruple;  make  into  twelve  pills. 

4.  James’  powder,  five  grains;  calomel,  three  grains;  in  fevers, 
for  adults.  For  children,  the  following;  Powdered  camphor,  one  scruple:  calomel 
and  powdered  scammony,  of  each  nine  grains;  James*  powder,  six  grains;  mix,  and 
divide  into  six  powders.  Half  of  one  powder  twice  a day  for  an  infant  a year  old;  a 
whole  powder  for  two  years;  and  for  four  years,  the  same  three  times  a day. 

5.  James’  powder,  six  grains;  powdered  jalap,  ten  grains;  mix, 
and  divide  into  three  or  four  powders,  according  to  the  child’s  age;  in  one  powder  if 
for  an  adult. 

6.  Powdered  rhubarb,  four  grains;  mercury  and  chalk,  three 

grains;  ginger  in  powder,  one  grain;  an  alterative  aperient  for  children. 

7.  Fluid  extract  cascara,  six  drams;  tincture  aloes  four 
drams;  tincture  hyoscyamus,  four  drams;  neutralizing  cordial,  two  ounces; 
dessertspoonful  every  four  hours  until  the  bowels  move  freely. 

8.  Nitrate  of  potass,  one  dram  and  a half;  spirits  of  nitric 

ether,  half  an  ounce;  camphor  mixture,  and  the  spirit  of  mindererus,  each  four  ounces; 
in  fevers,  etc. ; two  tablespoonfuls,  three  times  a day,  and  for  children  a dessert- 
spoonful every  four  hours. 

9.  Spirit  of  nitric  ether,  three  drams;  dilute  nitric  acid,  two 

drams;  syrup,  three  drams:  camphor  mixture,  seven  ounces;  in  fevers,  etc., 
with  debility;  dose  as  in  preceding  prescription. 

10.  Decoction  of  broom,  half  a pint;  cream  of  tartar,  one 

ounce;  tincture  of  squills,  two  drams;  in  dropsies;  a third  part  three  times  a day. 

11.  Pills  of  soap  and  opium,  five  grains  for  a dose,  as  directed. 

12.  Ammoniated  tincture  of  valerian,  six  drams;  camphor 
mixture,  seven  ounces;  a fourth  part  three  times  a day;  in  spasmodic  and  hysterical 
disorders. 

13.  Bisulphate  of  quinia,  half  a dram;  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 

twenty  drops;  compound  infusion  of  roses,  eight  ounces;  two  tablespoonfuls  every 
four  hours,  in  intermittent  and  other  fevers,  during  the  absence  of  the  paroxysm. 

14.  Almond  mixture,  seven  ounces  and  a half;  wine  of  an- 
timony and  ipecacuanha,  of  each  one  dram  and  a half;  a tablespoonful  every  four 
hours;  in  cough  with  fever,  etc. 

15.  Calomel,  one  grain;  powdered  white  sugar,  two  grains; 

to  make  a powder  to  be  placed  on  the  tongue  every  two  or  three  hours.  Should  the 
calomel  act  on  the  bowels,  powdered  kino  is  to  be  substituted  for  the  sugar. 

16.  Antimony  and  ipecacuanha  wines,  of  each  an  ounce;  a 
teaspoonful  every  ten  minutes  for  a child  till  vomiting  is  produced;  but  for  an  adult 
a large  tablespoonful  should  be  taken. 

17.  Compound  infusion  of  roses,  seven  ounces;  tincture  of 

myrrh,  one  ounce. 

18.  Infusion  of  orange  peel,  seven  ounces;  tincture  of  hops, 

half  an  ounce;  and  a dram  of  carbonate  of  soda;  two  tablespoonfuls  twice  a day. 
Or  infusion  of  valerian,  seven  ounces;  carbonate  of  ammonia,  two  scruples;  compound 
tincture  of  bark,  six  drams;  spirits  of  ether,  two  drams;  one  tablespoonful  every 
twenty-four  hours. 

19.  Blue  pill,  four  grains;  opium,  half  a grain;  to  be  taken 

three  times  a day. 

20.  For  a Clyster — A pint  and  a half  of  gruel  or  fat  broth, 

a tablespoonful  of  castor  oil,  one  of  common  salt,  and  a lump  of  butter;  mix,  to  be  in- 
jected slowly.  A third  of  this  quantity  is  enough  for  an  infant. 

21.  Chalk  mixture,  seven  ounces;  aromatic  and  opiate  con- 
fection, of  each  one  dram:  tincture  of  catechu,  six  drams;  two  tablespoonfuL* 
every  t\vo  hours. 


316 


MEDICINE  AND  IITGIENE. 

22.  Carbonate  of  soda,  powdered  rhubarb,  and  Castile  soap, 

each  one  dram;  make  thirty-six  pills;  three  twice  a day. 

23.  I^otion — Common  salt,  one  ounce;  distilled  water,  seven 

ounces;  spirits  ot  wine,  one  ounce;  mix. 

24.  Dried  sulphate  of  magnesia,  six  drams;  heavy  carbon- 
ate of  magnesia,  two  drams;  wine  of  colchicum,  two  drams;  water,  eight 
ounces;  take  two  tablespoonfuls  every  four  hours. 

25.  Compound  powder  of  ipecacuanha,  ten  grains;  powdered 

guaiacum,  four  grains;  in  a powder  at  bedtime. 

26.  Brandish’s  solution  of  potash;  thirty  drops  twice  a day  in  a 

wineglass  of  beer. 

27.  Bisulphate  of  quinia,  half  a dram;  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 

ten  drops;  compound  infusion  of  roses,  eight  ounces;  two  tablespoonfuls  every  eight 
hours,  and  as  a tonic  in  the  stage  of  weakness  succeeding  fever. 

28.  Flowers  of  sulphur,  two  ounces;  hog’s  lard,  four  ounces; 

white  hellebore  powder,  half  an  ounce ; oil  of  lavender,  sixty  drops. 

29.  Iodide  of  potass,  two  drams;  distilled  water,  eight 

ounces. 

30.  Flowers  of  sulphur,  half  a dram;  carbonate  of  soda,  a 

scruple;  tartarized  antimony,  one-eighth  of  a grain;  one  powder  night  and  morning, 
in  eruptions  of  the  skin  or  face. 

31.  Milk  of  bitter  almonds,  seven  ounces;  bichloride  of  mer- 
cury, four  grains;  spirits  of  rosemary,  one  ounce;  bathe  the  eruption  with  this  lotion 
three  times  a day. 

32.  Sulphate  of  zinc,  two  scruples;  sugar  of  lead,  fifteen  grains; 

distilled  water,  six  ounces;  the  parts  to  be  washed  with  the  lotion  three  times  a 
day. 

33.  Carbonate  of  iron,  six  grains;  powdered  rhubarb,  four 

grains;  one  powder  night  and  morning. 

34.  Aromatic  powder  and  pepsin,  each  one  dram;  make 

twelve  powders;  one  three  or  four  times  a.day. 

35.  Sulphate  of  zinc,  twelve  grains;  wine  of  opium,  one 

dram;  rosewater,  six  ounces. 

36.  Sulphate  of  magnesia,  six  drams;  sulphate  of  iron,  ten 

grains;  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  forty  drops;  tincture  of  cardamoms  (compound),  halt 
an  ounce;  water,  seven  ounces;  a fourth  part  night  and  morning. 

37.  Decoction  of  oak  bark,  a pint;  dried  alum,  half  an  ounce; 

for  an  injection;  a syringe  full  to  be  used  night  and  morning. 

38.  Compound  gamboge  pill  and  a pill  of  asafoetida  and  aloes; 

of  each  half  a dram;  make  twelve  pills;  two  twice  or  three  times  a week. 

39.  Griffith’s  mixture — one  tablespoonful  three  times  a 

day. 

40.  Ergot  of  rj^e,  five  grains;  in  a powder,  to  be  taken  every 

four  hours.  This  should  only  be  taken  under  medical  advice  and  sanction. 

41.  Powdered  opium,  half  a grain;  camphor,  two  grains,  in  a 

pill;  to  be  taken  every  three  or  four  hours  whilst  in  pain. 

42.  Syrup  of  balsam  of  tolu,  two  ounces;  the  muriate  of  mor- 

phia, two  grains;  muriatic  acid,  twenty  drops;  a teaspoonful  twice  a day. 

43.  Salts  of  tartar,  two  scruples;  twenty  grains  of  powdered 
cochineal;  lb  of  honey;  water,  half  a pint;  boil  and  give  a tablespoonful  three 
times  a day. 

44.  Calomel,  ten  grains;  Castile  soap,  extract  of  jalap,  extract 
of  colocynth,  of  each  one  scruple;  oil  of  juniper,  fivedrops;  make  into  fifteen  pills; 
one  three  times  a day. 

317 


MEDICINE  AND  HYGIENE. 

45.  Infusion  of  orange  peel,  eight  ounces;  carbonate  of  soda,. 

,ine  dram;  and  compound  tincture  of  cardamoms,  half  an  ounce;  take  a table- 
spoonful three  times  a day  succeeding  the  pills. 

46.  Carbonate  of  iron,  three  ounces;  sjrup  of  ginger  sufficient 

to  make  an  electuary;  a teaspoonful  three  times  a day. 

47.  Take  of  Castile  soap,  compound  extract  of  colocynth,  com- 
pound rhubarb  pill  and  the  extract  of  jalap,  each  one  scruple;  oil  of  caraway,  ten 
drops;  make  into  twenty  pills,  and  take  one  after  dinner  every  day  whilst  neces- 
sary. 

48.  Spirit  of  rosemary,  five  parts;  spirit  of  wine,  or  spirit  ot 

turpentine,  one  part. 

49.  Take  of  thick  mucilage,  one  ounce;  castor  oil,  twelve 

drams;  make  into  an  emulsion;  add  mint  water,  four  ounces:  spirit  of  nitre, 
three  drams;  laudanum,  one  dram;  mixture  of  squills,  one  dram;  and  syrup, 
seven  drams;  mix;  two  tablespoonfuls  every  six  hours. 

Rules  for  the  Preservation  of  Health. 

Pure  Atmospheric  Air  is  composed  of  nitrogen,  oxygen  and 

a very  small  proportion  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  Air  once  breathed  has  lost  the  chief 
part  of  its  oxygen  and  acquired  a proportionate  increase  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 
Therefore,  health  requires  that  we  breathe  the  same  air  once  only. 

The  Solid  Part  of  our  Bodies  is  continually  wasting  and 

requires  to  be  repaired  by  fresh  substances.  Therefore,  food  which  is  to  repair  the 
loss  should  be  taken  with  due  regard  to  the  exercise  and  waste  of  the  body. 

The  Fluid  Part  of  our  Bodies  also  wastes  constantly; 

there  is  but  one  fluid  in  animals,  which  is  water.  Therefore,  water  only  is  neces- 
sary, and  no  artifice  can  produce  a better  drink. 

The  Fluid  of  our  Bodies  is  to  the  solid  in  proportion  as  nine 

to  one.  Therefore,  a like  proportion  should  prevail  in  the  total  amount  of  food 
taken. 

Light  Exercises  an  Important  Influence  upon  the 

growth  and  vigor  of  animals  and  plants.  Therefore,  our  dwellings  should  freely 
admit  the  solar  rays. 

Decomposing  Animal  and  Vegetable  Substances  yield 

various  noxious  gases  which  enter  the  lungs  and  corrupt  the  blood.  Therefore, 
all  impurities  should  be  kept  away  from  our  abodes,  and  every  precaution  be  ob- 
served to  secure  a pure  atmosphere. 

Warmth  is  Essential  to  all  the  bodily  functions.  Therefore, 

an  equal  bodily  temperature  should  be  maintained  by  exercise,  by  clothing  or  by 
fire. 

Exercise  Warms,  Invigorates  and  purifies  the  body;  cloth- 
ing preserves  the  warmth  the  body  generates;  fire  imparts  warmth  externally. 
Therefore,  to  obtain  and  preserve  warmth,  exercise  and  clothing  are  preferable  to 
fire. 

Mental  and  Bodily  Exercise  are  equally  essential  to  the 

general  health  and  happiness.  Therefore,  labor  and  study  should  succeed  each, 
other. 

Man  will  live  most  Healthily  upon  simple  solids  and 

fluids,  of  which  a sufficient  but  temperate  quantity  should  be  taken.  Therefore,  over- 
indulgence  in  strong  drinks,  tobacco,  snuff,  opium,  and  all  mere  indulgences,  should 
be  avoided. 

Sudden  Alternations  of  Heat  and  Cold  are  dangerous; 

(especially  to  the  young  and  the  aged).  Therefore,  clothing,  in  quality  and  quantity, 
should  be  adapted  to  the  alternations  of  night  and  day  and  of  the  seasons;  and 
drinking  cold  water  when  the  body  is  hot,  and  hot  tea  and  soups  when,  cold,  are 
productive  of  many  evils. 

SIS 


MEDICINE  AND  HYGIENE. 


The  Skin  is  a Highly  Organized  Membrane  full  of 

minute  pores,  cells,  blood  vessels  and  nerves;  it  imbibes  moisture  or  throws  it  off,  ac- 
cording to  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  temperature  of  the  body.  It  also 
“breathes,”  asdo  the  lungs  (though  less  actively).  All  the  internal  organs  sympa- 
thize with  the  skin.  Therefore,  it  should  be  repeatedly  cleansed. 

Fire  Consumes  the  Oxygen  of  the  air  and  produces  noxious 

gases.  Therefore,  the  air  is  less  pure  in  the  presence  of  candles,  gas  or  coal  fire, 
than  otherwise,  and  the  deterioration  should  be  repaired  by  increased  ventilation. 

Late  Hours  and  Anxious  Pursuits  exhaust  the  nervous 

system  and  produce  disease  and  premature  death.  Therefore,  the  hours  of  labor 
and  study  should  be  short. 

Moderation  in  Eating  and  drinking,  short  hours  of  labor 

and  study,  regularity  in  exercise,  recreation  and  rest,  cleanliness,  equanimity  of 
temper  and  equality  of  temperature — these  are  the  great  essentials  to  that  which 
surpasses  all  wealth,  health  of  mind  and  body. 

HOMCEOTATHY. 

Principles  of  Homceopathy. — As  homoeopathy  is  now  prac- 
ticed so  widely,  and,  indeed,  preferred  to  the  older  system  in 
many  families,  this  department  could  scarcely  lay  claim  to  be 
considered  complete  without  a brief  mention  of  the  principal 
remedies  used  and  recommended  by  homoeopathic  practitioners, 
and  the  disorders  for  which  these  remedies  are  especially  appli- 
cable. The  principle  of  homoeopath^"  is  set  forth  in  the  Latin 
words  ^'‘similia  similibtis  cura7iturj''  the  meaning  of  which  is 
“likes  are  cured  by  likes.”  The  homoeopathist,  in  order  to  cure 
a disease,  administers  a medicine  which  would  produce  in  a per- 
fectly healthy  subject  symptoms  like  but  not  identical  with,  or 
the  same  as,  the  symptoms  to  counteract  which  the  medicine  is 
given.  He,  therefore,  first  makes  himself  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  the  symptoms  that  are  exhibited  by  the  sufferer;  having 
ascertained  these,  in  order  to  neutralize  them  and  restore  the 
state  of  the  patient’s  health  to  a state  of  equilibrium,  so  to  speak, 
he  administers  preparations  that  would  produce  symptoms  of  a 
like  character  in  persons  in  good  health.  It  is  not  said,  be  it 
remembered,  that  the  drug  can  produce  in  a healthy  person  the 
disease  from  which  the  patient  is  suffering;  it  is  only  advanced 
by  homoeopathists  that  the  drug  given  has  the  power  of  pro- 
ducing in  a person  in  health  symptoms  similar  to  those  of  the 
disease  under  which  the  patient  is  languishing,  and  that  the  cor- 
rect mode  of  treatment  is  to  counteract  the  disease  symptoms 
by  the  artificial  production  of  similar  symptoms  by  medical 
means,  or,  in  other  words,  to  suit  the  medicine  to  the  disorder, 
by  the  previously  acquired  knowledge  of  the  effects  of  the  drug 
by  experiment  on  a healthy  person. 

Homoeopathic  Remedies  are  given  in  the  form  of  globules 
or  tinctures,  the  latter  being  generally  preferred  by  homoeopathic 
practitioners.  When  contrasted  with  the  doses  of  drugs  given  by 
allopathists,  the  small  doses  administered  by  homoeopathists 

319 


HO  MCE  OP  A THIC  REMEDIES. 


must  at  first  sight  appear  wholly  inadequate  to  the  purpose  for 
which  they  are  given;  but  homoeopathists,  whose  dilution  and 
trituration  diffuse  the  drug  given  throughout  the  vehicle  in 
which  it  is  administered,  argue  that  by  this  extension  of  its  stir- 
face  the  active  power  of  the  drug  is  greatly  increased.  Large 
doses  of  certain  drugs  administered  for  certain  purposes  will  pass 
through  the  system  without  in  anj^  w'ay  affecting  those  organs 
which  will  be  acted  on  most  powerfully  by  the  very  same  drugs 
when  administered  in  much  smaller  doses.  Thus  a small  dose 
of  sweet  spirit  of  nitre  will  act  on  the  skin  and  promote  perspi- 
ration, but  a large  dose  will  act  as  a diuretic  only  and  exert  no 
influence  on  the  skin. 

Great  stress  is  laid  by  homoeopathists  on  attention  to  diet,  but 
not  so  much  so  in  the  present  day  as  when  the  system  was  first  in- 
troduced. The  reader  will  find  a list  of  articles  of  food  that  may 
and  may  not  be  taken  in  a succeeding  page.  Below  are  given 
briefly  a few  of  the  more  common  ailments  “that  flesh  is  heir 
to,”  with  the  symptoms  by  which  they  are  indicated  and  the 
medicines  by  which  they  may  be  alleviated  and  eventually 
cured. 

Asthma,  an  ailment  which  should  be  referred  in  all  cases  to 

the  medical  practitioner.  Symptoms.  Difficulty  in  breathing,  with  cough,  either 
spasmodic  and  without  expectoration,  or  accompanied  with  much  expectoration. 
Medicines.  Aconitum  napellus,  especially  with  congestion  or  slight  spitting  of 
blood;  Antimoniurn  tartaricum  for  rattling  and  wheezing  in  the  chest;  Arsenicum  for 
chronic  asthma;  Ipecacuanha;  Nux  vomica. 

Bilious  Attacks,  if  attended  with  diarrhoea  and  copious 

evacuations  of  a bright  yellow  color.  Medicines.  Bryonia,  if  arising  from  sedentary 
occupation,  or  from  eating  and  drinking  too  freely;  or  Nux  vomica  and  Mercurius  in 
alternation,  the  former  correcting  constipation  and  the  latter  nausea,  fullness  at  the 
pit  of  the  stomach  and  a foul  tongue. 

Bronchitis.  Symptoms.  Catarrh,  accompanied  with  fever;  ex- 
pectoration, dark,  thick,  and  sometimes  streaked  with  blood;  urine  dark,  thick  and 
scanty.  Medicines.  Aconitum  napellus;  especially  in  earlier  stages;  Bryonia  for 
pain  in  coughing  and  difficulty  in  breathing;  Antimoniurn  tartaricum,  loose  cough, 
with  much  expectoration,  and  a feeling  of,  and  tendency  to,  suffocation;  ipecacu- 
anha, accumulation  of  phlegm  in  bronchial  tubes  and  for  children. 

Bruises  and  Wounds. — For  all  bruises,  black  eyes,  etc.,  apply 

Arnica  lotion;  for  slight  wounds,  after  washing  well  with  cold  water,  apply  Arnica 
plaster;  to  stop  bleeding,  when  ordinary  means  fail,  and  for  larger  wounds  apply 
concentrated  tincture  of  Calendula. 

Cold  in  the  Head  or  Catarrh.  Symptoms.  Feverish 

feeling  generally,  and  especially  about  the  head,  eyes,  and  nose,  running  frorn,  and 
obstruction  of  nose;soreness  and  irritation  of  the  throat  and  bronchial  inhes.  Medicines. 
Aconitum  napellus  for  feverish  symptoms;  Belladonna  for  sore  throat  and  headache 
with  inclination  to  cough;  Mercurius  for  running  from  nose  and  sneezing;  Nux 
vomica  for  stoppage  of  nostrils;  Chamomilla  for  children  and  v/omen,  for  whom 
Pulsatilla  is  also  useful  in  such  cases. 

Chilblains.  Symptoms.  Irritation  and  itching  of  the  skin, 

which  assumes  a bluish  red  color.  Medicines.  Arnica  montana,  taken  internally 
or  used  as  outward  application,  unless  the  chilblain  be  broken,  when  Arsenicum 
should  be  used.  If  the  swelling  and  irritation  do  not  yield  to  these  remedies,  use 
Belladona  and  Rhus  toxicodendron. 


320 


HO  MCE  OP  A THIC  REMEDIES. 


Cholera,  i.  Bilious  cholera.  Symptoms.  Nausea,  proceed- 
ing to  vomiting,  griping  of  the  bowels,  watery  and  offensive  evacuations,  in  which 
much  bile  is  present,  accompanied  with  weakness  and  depression.  Medicines. 
Bryonia,  with  ipecacuanha  at  commencement  of  attack.  2.  Malignant  or  Asiatic 
cholera.  as  in  bilious  cholera,  but  in  a more  aggravated  form,  followed 

by  what  is  called  the  “cold  stage,”  marked  by  great  severity  of  griping  pain  in  stomach 
accompanied  with  frequent  and  copious  .vatery  evacuations, and  presently  with  cramps 
in  all  parts  of  the  body;  after  which  the  extremities  become  chilled,  the  pulse 
scarcely  discernible,  the  result  of  which  is  stupor  and  ultimately  death.  Medicines. 
Camphor  in  the  form  of  tincture,  in  frequent  doses,  until  the  sufferer  begins  to  feel 
warmth  returning  to  the  body,  and  perspiration  ensues.^  In  the  latter  stages. 
Cuprum  and  Veratrum. 

Tincture  of  Camphor  is  one  of  the  most  useful  of  the  homoeo- 
pathic remedies  in  all  cases  of  colic,  diarrhoea,  etc.  In  ordinary  cases  fifteen  drops 
on  sugar  may  be  taken  every  quarter  of  an  hour  until  the  pain  is  allayed.  In  more 
aggravated  cases,  and  in  cases  of  cholera,  a few  drops  may  be  taken  at  intervals  of 
from  two  to  five  minutes.  A dose  of  fifteen  drops  of  camphor  on  sugar  tends  to 
counteract  a chill  if  taken  soon  after  premonitory  symptoms  show  themselves,  and 
act  as  a prophylactic  against  cold. 

Colic  or  Stomach  Ache. — This  disorder  is  indicated  by 

griping  pains  in  the  bowels,  which  sometimes  extend  upwards  into  and  over  the 
region  of  the  chest.  Sometimes  the  pain  is  attended  with  vomiting  and  cold  per- 
spiration. A warm  bath  is  useful,  and  hot  flannels,  or  ajar  or  bottle  filled  with  hot 
water  should  be  applied  to  the  abdomen.  Medicines.  Aconitum  napellus,  especially 
when  the  abdomen  is  tender  to  the  touch,  and  the  patient  is  feverish;  Belladonna  for 
severe  griping  and  spasmodic  pains;  Bryonia  for  bilious  colic  and  diarrhoea;  Chamo- 
milla  for  children. 

Constipation. — Women  are  more  subject  than  men  to  this 
confined  state  of  the  bowels, which  will,  in  many  cases,  yield  to  exercise,  plain,  nutri- 
tious diet,  with  vegetables  and  cooked  fruit,  and  but  little  bread,  and  an  enema  of 
milk  and  water,  or  thin  gruel  if  it  is  some  time  since  there  has  been  any  action  of  the 
bowels.  Medicines.  Bryonia,  especially  for  rheumatic  patients,  and  disturbed  state 
of  the  stomach;  Nux  vomica,  for  persons  of  sedentary  habits,  especially  males;  Pul- 
satilla, for  women;  Sulphur,  for  constipation  that  is  habitual  or  of  long  continuance. 

Convulsions. — For  convulsions  arising  from  whatever  cause, 

a warm  bath  is  desirable,  and  a milk  and  water  enema,  if  the  child’s  bowels  are  con- 
fined. Medicines.  Belladonna  and  Chamomilla,  if  the  convulsions  are  caused 
by  teething,  with  Acomtum  napellus  if  the  little  patient  be  feverish;  Aconitum 
napellus,  Cina,  and  Belladonna,  for  convulsions  caused  by  worms;  Aconite  and  Cof- 
foea,  when  they  arise  from  fright;  Ipecacuanha  and  Nux  vomica,  when  they  have 
been  caused  by  repletion,  or  food  that  is  difficult  of  digestion. 

Cough. — For  this  disorder,  a light  farinaceous  diet  is  desirable, 

with  plenty  of  out-door  exercise  and  constant  use  of  the  sponging-bath.  Medicines. 
Aconitum  napellus,  for  a hard,  dry,  hacking  cough;  Antimonium,  for  cough  with 
wheezing  and  difficulty  of  expectoration;  Belladonna,  for  spasmodic  cough,  with 
tickling  in  the  throat,  or  sore  throat;  Bryonia,  for  hard,  dry  cough,  with  expectora- 
tions streaked  with  blood;  ipecacuanha,  for  children. 

Croup. — As  this  disorder  frequently  and  quickly  terminates 

fatally,  recourse  should  be  had  to  a duly  qualified  practitioner  as  soon  as  possible. 
The  disease  lies  chiefly  in  the  larynx  and  bronchial  tubes,  and  is  easy  recognizable 
by  the  sharp,  barking  sound  of  the  cough.  A warm  bath  and  mustard  poultice  will 
often  tend  to  give  relief.  Medicines.  Aconitum  napellus,  in  the  earlier  stages  of 
the  disorder,  and  Spongia  and  Hepar  sulphuris,  in  the  more  advanced  stages,  the 
latter  medicine  being  desirable  when  the  cough  is  not  so  violent  and  the  breathing 
easier. 

Diarrhcea. — The  medicines  to  be  used  in  this  disorder  are 

those  which  are  mentioned  under  colic  and  bilious  attacks. 

Dysentery  is  somewhat  similar  to  diarrhoea,  but  the  symp- 

;121 


HO  MCE  OP  A THIC  REMEDIES, 


toms  are  more  aggravated  in  character,  and  the  evacuations  are  chiefly  mucus  streaked 
with  blood.  As  a local  remedy  hot  flannels  or  a stone  jar  filled  with  hot  water  and 
wrapped  in  flannel  should  be  applied  to  the  abdomen.  Medicines.  Colocynthis 
and  Mercurius  in  alternation. 

Dyspepsia  or  Indigestion  arises  from  v/eakness  of  the 

digestive  organs.  Symptoms.  Chief  among  these  are  habitual  costiveness,  heartburn 
and  nausea,  disinclination  to  eat,  listlessness  and  weakness,  accompanied  with  fatigue 
after  walking  etc.,  restlessness  and  disturbed  sleep  at  night,  bad  taste  in  the 
mouth,  with  white  tongue,  especially  in  the  morning,  accompanied  at  times  with 
fullness  in  the  region  of  the  stomach. and  flatulence,  which  causes  disturbance  of  the 
heart.  The  causes  of  indigestion  are  too  numerous  to  be  mentioned  here,  but  they 
may  be  inferred  when  it  is  said  that  scrupulous  attention  must  be  paid  to  diet  (see 
p.  324);  that  meals  should  be  taken  at  regular  and  not  too  long  intervals:  that 
warm  drinks,  stimulants  and  tobacco  should  be  avoided;  that  early  and  regular 
hours  should  be  kept,  with  a cold  or  chilled  sponge  bath  every  morning:  and  that 
measures  should  be  taken  to  obtain  a fair  amount  of  exercise,  and  to  provide  suita- 
ble occupation  for  both  body  and  mind  during  the  day.  Medicines.  Arnica  montana 
for  persons  who  are  nervous  and  irritable,  and  suffer  much  from  headache;  Bryonia 
for  persons  who  are  bilious  and  subject  to  rheumatism,  and  those  who  are  listless  and 
disinclined  to  eat,  and  have  an  unpleasant  bitter  taste  in  the  mouth;  Hepar  sulphuris 
for  chronic  indigestion  and  costiveness,  attended  with  tendency  to  vomit  in  the 
morning;  Mercurius  in  cases  of  flatulence,  combined  with  costiveness;  Nux  vomica 
for  indigestion  that  makes  itself  felt  from  2 a.  m.  to  4 a.  m.,  or  thereabouts,  with  loss 
of  appetite  and  nausea  in  the  morning,  and  for  persons  with  a tendency  to  piles,  and 
those  who  are  engaged  in  sedentary  occupations;  Pulsatilla  for  women  generally, 
and  Chamomilla  for  children. 

Fevers. — For  all  fevers  of  a serious  character,  such  as  scarlet 

fever,  typhus  fever,  typhoid  fever,  gastric  fever,  intermittent  fever,  or  ague,  etc.,  it 
is  better  to  send  at  once  for  a medical  man.  Incases  of  ordinary  fever  indicated 
by  alternate  flushes  and  shivering,  a hot  dry  skin,  rapid  pulse,  and  dry,  foul  tongue, 
the  patient  should  have  a warm  bath,  take  but  little  nourishment,  and  drink  cold 
water.  Medicine.  Aconitum  napellus. 

Flatulency. — This  disorder,  which  arises  from,  and  is  a symp- 
tom of  indigestion,  frequently  affects  respiration,  and  causes  disturbance  and  quick- 
ened action  of  the  heart.  The  patient  should  pay  attention  to  diet,  as  for  dys- 
pepsia. Medicines.  Cina  and  Nux  vomica;  Pulsatilla  for  women,  and  Chamo- 
milla for  children.  See  Dyspepsia. 

Headache. — This  disorder  proceeds  from  so  many  various 

causes,  W’hich  require  different  treatment,  that  it  is  wiser  to  apply  at  once  to  a regu- 
lar homoeopathic  practitioner,  and  especially  in  headache  of  frequent  occurrence. 
Medicines.  Nux  vomica  when  headache  is  caused  by  indigestion;  Pulsatilla  being 
useful  for  w’omen;  Belladonna  and  Ignatia,  for  sick  headache;  Aconitum  napellus 
and  Arsenicum  for  nervous  headache. 

Heartburn. — For  this  unpleasant  sensation  of  heat,  arising 
from  the  stomach,  accompanied  by  a bitter  taste,  and  sometimes  by  nausea,  Nux 
vomica  is  a good  medicine.  Pulsatilla  may  be  taken  by  women. 

Indigestion. — See  Dyspepsia. 

Measles. — This  complaint,  which  seldom  attacks  adults,  is  in- 
dicated in  its  early  stage  by  the  usual  accompaniments  and  signs  of  a severe  cold  in 
the  head— namely,  sneezing,  running  from  the  nose  and  eyelids,  which  are  swol- 
len. The  sufferer  also  coughs,  does  not  care  to  eat,  and  feels  sick  and  restless. 
About  four  days  after  the  first  appearance  of  these  premonitory  symptoms,  a red 
rash  comes  out  over  the  face,  neck  and  body,  which  dies  away,  and  finally  disap- 
pears in  about  five  days.  The  patient  should  be  kept  warm,  and  remain  in  one  room 
during  the  continuance  of  the  disorder,  and  especially  while  the  rash  is  out,  lest, 
through  exposure  to  cold  m any  way,  the  rash  may  be  checked  and  driven  inwards. 
Meaicines.  Aconitum  napellus,  and  Pulsatilla,  which  are  sufficient  for  all  ordinary 
cases.  If  there  be  much  fever.  Belladonna;  and  if  the  rash  be  driven  in  by  a chilf, 
Bryonia. 


322 


no  MCE  OP  A THtC  remedies. 


Mumps. — This  disorder  is  sometimes  consequent  on  measles. 

It  is  indicated  by  the  swelling  of  the  glands  under  the  ear  and  lower  jaw.  It  is  far 
more  painful  than  dangerous.  Fomenting  with  warm  water  is  useful.  Medichies. 
Mercurius  generally;  Belladonna  may  be  used  when  mumps  follow  an  attack  of 
measles. 

Nettlerash. — This  rash,  so  called  because  in  appearance  it  re- 
sembles the  swelling  and  redness  caused  by  the  sting  of  a nettle,  is  generally  pro- 
duced by  a disordered  state  of  the  stomach.  Medicines.  Aconi^um  napellus,  Nux- 
vomica,  or  Pulsatilla,  in  ordinary  cases;  Arsenicum  is  useful  if  there  is  much  fever; 
Belladonna  if  the  rash  is  accompanied  with  headache. 

Piles. — The  ordinary  homoeopathic  remedies  for  this  painful 

complaint  are  Nux  vomica  and  Sulphur. 

Sprains. — Apply  to  the  part  affected  a lotion  of  one  part  of 

tincture  of  Arnica  to  two  of  water.  For  persons  who  cannot  use  Arnica,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  irritation  produced  by  it,  a lotion  of  tincture  of  Calendula  may  be 
used  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  the  tincture  to  four  of  water 

Teething. — Infants  and  very  young  children  frequently  ex- 
perience much  pain  in  the  mouth  during  dentition,  and  especially  when  the  tooth  is 
making  its  way  through  the  gum.  The  child  is  often  feverish,  the  mouth  and  gums 
hot  and  tender,  and  the  face  flushed.  There  is  also  much  running  from  the  mouth, 
and  the  bowels  are  disturbed,  being  in  some  cases  confined,  and  in  others  relaxed, 
approaching  to  diarrhoea.  Medicines.  These  are  Aconitum  napellus,  in  ordinary 
cases;  Nux  vomica,  when  the  bowels  are  confined;  Chamomilla,  when  the  bowels; 
are  relaxed;  Mercurius,  if  the  relaxed  state  of  the  bowels  has  deepened  into  diarrhoea;: 
Belladonna,  if  there  be  symptoms  of  disturbance  of  the  brain. 

W HOOPING  Cough. — This  disease  is  sometimes  of  long  duration, 
for  if  it  shows  itselfin  the  autumn  or  winter  months,  the  little  patient  will  frequently 
retain  cough  until  May  or  evenj  une,when  it  disappears  with  return  of  warmer  weather. 
Change  of  air  when  practicable  is  desirable,  especially  when  the  cough  has  been  of 
long  continuance.  In  this  cough  there  are  three  stages.  In  the  first  the  symptoms 
are  those  of  an  ordinary  cold  in  the  head  and  cough.  In  the  second  the  cough  be- 
comes hard,  dry  and  rapid,  and  the  inhalation  of  the  air,  after  or  during  the  par- 
oxysm of  the  coughing,  produces  a peculiar'sound  from  which  the  disease  is  named. 
In  the  final  stage  the  cough  occurs  at  longer  intervals,  and  the  paroxysms  are  less 
violent  and  ultimately  disappear.  In  this  stage  the  disease  is  subject  to  fluctuation, 
the  cough  again  increasing  in  frequency  of  occurrence  and  intensity  if  the  patient 
has  been  unduly  exposed  to  cold  or  damp,  or  if  the  weather  is  very  changeable. 
Children  suffering  from  whooping-cough  should  have  a light  nourishing  diet  and 
only  go  out  when  the  weather  is  mild  and  warm.  Medicines.  Aconitum  napellus 
in  the  very  commencement  of  the  disorder,  followed  by  Ipecacuanha  and  Nux 
vomica  when  the  second  stage  is  just  approaching  and  during  its  continuance. 
These  medicines  may  be  continued  if  necessary  during  the  third  stage. 

Worms. — The  presence  of  worms  is  indicated  by  irritation  of 

the  membrane  of  the  nose,  causing  the  child  to  thrust  its  finger  into  the  nostrils;  by 
irritation  of  the  lower  part  < f the  body;  by  thinness,  excessive  appetite  and  restless- 
ness in  sleep.  Children  suffering  from  worms  should  eat  meat  freely  and  not  take 
so  much  bread,  vegetables,  and  farinaceous  food  as  children  generally  do.  They 
should  have  as  much  exercise  as  possible  in  the  open  air,  and  be  sponged  with  cold 
water  every  morning.  The  worms  that  mostly  trouble  children  are  tljjithread 
worms,  which  are  present  chiefly  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  intestines,  and  the 
round  worm.  Medicine,  Sr^c.  Administer  an  injection  of  weak  salt-and-water,  and 
give  Aconitum  napellus,  to  be  followed  by  Ignatia  and  Sulphur  in  the  order  in  which 
they  are  here  given.  These  are  the  usual  remedies  for  threadworms.^  For  round 
worms,  whose  presence  in  the  stomach  is  indicated  by  great  thinness,  sickness  and 
discomfort,  and  pain  in  the  stomach,  Aconitum  napellus,  Cina,  Ignatia,  and  Sulphur 
are  given. 

Extent  of  Doses  in  Homceopathy, — Homoeopathic  medi- 
cines are  given  in  the  form  of  globules,  pilules,  or  tincture,  the  last-named  being: 

323 


ARTIFICIAL  FEEDING  OF  INFANTS. 


generally  preferred.  The  average  doses  for  adults  are  from  half  a drop  to  one  drop  of 
the  tincture  given  in  a tablespoonful  of  water,  trom  two  to  four  pilules,  or  from  three  to 
six  globules.  In  using  the  tincture  it  is  usual  to  measure  out  a few  tablespoonfuls  of 
water  and  to  add  to  it  a certain  number  of  drops  regulated  by  the  quantity  of  water 
that  is  used.  For  children  medicine  is  mixed  at  the  same  strength,  but  a less  quan- 
tity is  given.  The  proper  quantity  for  a dose  is  always  given  in  books  and  manuals 
for  the  homoeopathic  treatment  of  disease.  Small  cases  of  the  principal  medicines 
used  in  homoeopathy  can  be  procured  from  most  druggists,  and  with  each  case  a little 
book  showing  tjie  symptoms  and  treatment  of  all  ordinary  complaints  is  usually  given. 

Diet  in  Homceopathy. — The  articles  of  food  that  are  chiefly 

recommended  when  attention  to  diet  is  necessary  are  stale  bread,  beef,  mutton, 
poultry,  fresh  game,  fish,  chiefly  cod  and  flat  fish,  avoiding  mackerel,  etc.,  eggs  and 
oysters.  Rice,  sago,  tapioca,  and  arrowroot  are  permitted,  as  are  also  potatoes,  car- 
rots, turnips,  broccoli,  cauliflower,  asparagus,  French  beans,  and  broad  beans. 
Water,  milk,  cocoa  and  chocolate  may  be  drunk.  It  is  desirable  to  avoid  all  things 
that  are  not  specified  in  the  foregoing  list.  Ripe  fruit  may  be  eaten,  but  unripe 
fruit,  unless  cooked,  should  be  scrupulously  avoided. 

ARTIFICIAL  FEEDING  OF  INFANTS. 

The  following  formula,  by  a physician  of  high  standing,  has 
been  found  beneficial  in  numerous  cases  where  everything  else 
failed  to  produce  satisfactory  results.  In  the  author’s  own  fam- 
ily, it  saved  the  life  of  an  infant  daughter  who  had  been  given 
up  by  an  old  practitioner,  but  who,  it  seems,  was  dying  simply 
from  lack  of  proper  nourishment.  She  is  now  a rosy,  robust 
child,  in  perfect  health,  and  the  pet  of  the  household.  The  vir- 
tue of  this  formula  consists  in  the  fact  that  it  most  nearlj^  corre- 
sponds to  the  natural  nourishment  from  a healthy  mother’s 
breast.  In  using  this  formula  care  should  be  taken  to  use  only 
absolutely  pure  water,  and  all  bottles  and  vessels  should  be  scru- 
pulously clean.  The  cream  and  milk  should  be  from  one  cow  only : 

Take  two  tablespoonfuls  of  cream,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  lime 
Vv^ater,  one  tablespoonful  of  good  milk,  three  tablespoonfuls  of  a 
solution  of  sugar  of  milk  containing  eighteen  drams  to  one  pint 
of  pure  water. 

This  quantity  warmed  is  enough  for  once  feeding  a child  of  four  months.  For  an 
older  child  add  one  teaspoonful  of  milk  to  the  mixture  for  each  month  over  four. 
F or  a younger  child,  diminish  the  quantity  of  milk  in  the  same  ratio. 

The  child  should  be  fed  every  two  hours  and  a half  during  the  day  and 
evening  and  as  little  as  possible  at  night. 

If  the  child  be  constipated,  substitute  barley  water  for  lime  water.  In  preparing 
the  barley  water  a porcelain-lined  kettle  should  be  employed  if  possible.  Use  best 
pearl  barley,  and  boil  to  a very  thin  gruel,  which  strain. 

Each  feeding  must,  of  course,  be  made  fresh,  although  the  barley  water  and  the 
sugar-of-milk  solution  may  be  made  in  quantities. 

Cholera  Mixture — Take  equal  parts  of  tincture  of  cayenne, 
tincture  of  opium,  tincture  of  rhubarb,  essence  of  peppermint, 
and  spirits  of  camphor.  Mix  well.  Dose,  15  to  30  drops  in  a 
wine-glass  of  water,  according  to  age  and  violence  of  the  attack. 
Repeat  every  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  until  relief  is  obtained. 

Cure  for  Hiccough — Sit  erect  and  inflate  the  lungs  fully. 
Then,  retaining  the  breath,  bend  forward  slowly  until  the  chest 

324 


CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES, 


meets  the  knees.  After  slowly  arising  again  to  the  erect  posi- 
tion, slowly  exhale  the  breath.  Repeat  this  process  a second 
time,  and  the  nerves  will  be  found  to  have  received  an  access  of 
energy  that  will  enable  them  to  perform  their  natural  functions. 

Choking — A piece  of  food  lodged  in  the  throat  may  some- 
times be  pushed  down  with  the  finger,  or  removed  with  a hair- 
pin quickly  straightened  and  hooked  at  the  end,  or  by  two  or 
three  vigorous  blows  on  the  back  between  the  shoulders. 

Contagious  Diseases. 

The  following  points  will  help  to  determine  the  nature  of  a 
suspicious  illness: 


Disease. 

Rash  or  Eruption. 

Appearance. 

Durati’n 
in  days. 

Remarks. 

Chicken-pox  . , . 

Small  rose  pimples 
changing  to  vesi- 
cles   

2d  day  of  fever 
or  after  24  h’rs* 
illness 

6-7 

Scabs  from  about 
fourth  day  0 f 
fever. 

Erysipelas 

Diffuse  redness  and 
swelling 

2d  or  3d  day  of 
illness 

Measles 

Small  red  dots  like 

4th  day  of  fever 
or  after  72 
hours’  illness. . 
2d  day  of  fever 
0 r a f t e r 24 
hours’  illness. . 
3a  day  of  fever 
or  after  48 
hours’  illness., 
nth  to  14th  day. 

6-10 

Rash  fades  0 n 

flea  bites 

7th  day. 

Rash  fades  0 n 
5th  day. 

Scabs  form  9th  or 
loth  day,  fall  off 
about  14th. 

Accompanied  by 
diarrhoea. 

Scarlet  Fever. 

Bright  scarlet,  dif- 
fused  

8-10 

Small-pox 

Typhoid  Fever. 

Small  red  pimples 
changing  to  vesi- 
cles, then  pustules 
Rose-colored  spots 
scattered 

U-21 

22-30 

there  is  danger  of  infection  after  a child  has  been  exposed  to  a 
contagious  disease.  The  following  table  gives  the  information 
concerning  the  more  important  diseases: 


Symptoms 

appear. 

Period 
ranges  from 

On  14th  day 
“ 2d  day 
“ 14th  day 
**  19th  day 
“ 14th  day 
**  4th  day 
**  12th  day 
“ 2ist  day 
“ 14th  day 

io-i8  days 
2-  5 days 
10-14  days 
16-24  days 
12-20  days 
I-  7 days 
1-14  days 
1-28  days 
7-14  days 

Disease. 


Patient  is  Infectious. 


Chicken-pox 

Diphtheria 

Measles*  

Mumps 

Rotheln 

Scarlet  Fever 

Small-pox 

Typhoid  Fever 

W HOOPING  CoUGHt. . 


Until  all  scabs  have  fallen  off. 

14  d’s  after  dis’pear’ce  of  membrane. 
Until  scali’g  and  cough  have  ceas’d. 
14  days  from  commencement. 

10-14  days  from  commencement. 
Until  all  scaling  has  ceased. 

Until  all  scabs  have  fallen  off. 
Until  diarrhoea  ceases. 

Six  weeks  from  beginning  to  wllioop. 


*In  measles  the  patient  is  infectious  three  days  before  the  eruption  appears, 
tin  whooping-cough  the  patient  is  infectious  during  the  primary  cough,  which 
may  be  three  weeks  before  the  whooping  begins. 

325 


ACCIDENTS  AND  EMERGENCIES. 


WHAT  TO  DO. 

If  an  artery  is  cnt^  red  blood  spurts.  Compress  it  above  the 
voound.  If  a vein  is  cut^  dark  blood  flows.  Compress  it  below 
and  above. 

If  choked.,  go  upon  all  fours  and  cough. 

For  slight  burns^  dip  the  part  in  cold  water;  if  the  skin  is 
destroyed.,  cover  with  varnish  or  linseed  oil. 

For  apoplexy.,  raise  the  head  and  body ; for  fainting^  lay  the 
person  flat. 

Send  for  a physician  when  a serious  accident  of  any  kind 
occurs.,  but  treat  as  directed  until  he  arrives. 

Scalds  and  Burns — The  following  facts  cannot  be  too 

firmly  impressed  on  the  mind  of  the  reader,  that  in  either  of  these  accidents  the 
iirsty  best,  and  often  the  only  remedies  required,  are  sheets  of  wadding,  fine  wool, 
or  carded  cotton,  and  in  the  default  of  these, violet  powder,  flour,  magnesia,  or  chalk. 
The  object  for  which  these  several  articles  are  employed  is  the  same  in  each  in- 
stance; namely,  to  exclude  the  air  from  the  injured  part;  for  if  the  air  can  be  effec- 
tually shut  out  from  the  raw  surface,  and  care  is  taken  not  to  expose  the  tender  part 
till  the  new  cuticle  is  formed,  the  cure  may  be  safely  left  to  nature.  The  moment  a 
person  is  called  to  a case  of  scald  or  burn,  he  should  cover  the  part  with  a sheet,  or 
a portion  of  a sheet,  of  wadding,  taking  care  not  to  break  any  blister  that  may  have 
formed,  or  stay  to  remove  any  burnt  clothes  that  may  adhere  to  the  surface,  but  as 
quickly  as  possible  envelop  every  part  of  the  injury  from  all  access  of  the  air,  laying 
one  or  two  more  pieces  of  wadding  on  the  first,  so  as  effectually  to  guard  the  burn 
or  scald  from  the  irritation  of  the  atmosphere;  and  if  the  article  used  is  wool  or  cot- 
ton, the  same  precaution,  of  adding  more  material  where  the  surface  is  thinly  cov- 
ered, must  be  adopted;  a light  bandage  finally  securing  all  in  their  places.  Any  of 
the  popular  remedies  recommended  below  may  be  employed  when  neither  wool, 
cotton,  nor  wadding  are  to  be  procured,  it  being  always  remembered  that  that  ar- 
ticle which  will  best  exclude  the  air  from  a burn  or  scald  is  the  best,  quickest,  and 
least  painful  mode  of  treatment.  And  in  this  respect  nothing  has  surpassed  cotton 
loose  or  attached  to  paper  as  in  wadding. 

If  the  Skin  is  Much  Injured  in  burns,  spread  some  linen 

pretty  thickly  with  chalk  ointment,  and  lay  over  the  part,  and  give  the  patient  some 
brandy  and  water  if  much  exhausted;  then  send  for  a medical  man.  If  not  much 
injured,  and  very  painful,  use  the  same  ointment,  or  apply  carded  cotton  dipped  in 
lime  water  and  linseed  oil.  If  you  please,  you  may  lay  cloths  dipped  in  ether  over 
the  parts,  or  cold  lotions.  Treat  scalds  in  same  manner,  or  cover  with  scraped  raw 
potato;  but  the  chalk  ointment  is  the  best.  In  the  absence  of  all  these,  cover  the 
injured  part  with  treacle,  and  dust  over  it  plenty  of  flour. 

Body  in  Flames — l^ay  the  person  down  on  the  floor  of  the 

room,  and  throw  the  table  cloth,  rug,  or  other  large  cloth  over  him,  and  roll  him 
on  the  floor. 

Dirt  in  the  Eye — Place  your  forefinger  upon  the  cheek-bone, 

having  the  patient  before  you;  then  slightly  bend  the  finger,  this  will  draw  down 
the  lower  lid  of  the  eye,  and  you  will  probably  be  able  to  remove  the  dirt;  but  if 
this  will  not  enable  you  to  get  at  it,  repeat  this  operation  while  you  have  a netting- 
needle  or  bodkin  placed  over  the  eyelid;  this  will  turn  it  inside  out,  and  enable  you 
to  remove  the  sand,  or  eyelash,  etc.,  with  the  corner  of  a fine  silk  handkerchief.  As 
soon  as  the  substance  is  removed,  bathe  the  eye  with  cold  water,  and  exclude  the 
light  for  a day.  If  the  inflammation  is  severe,  let  the  patient  use  a refrigerant  lotion. 

Ihme  in  the  Eye — Syringe  it  well  with  warm  vinegar  and 

water  in  the  proprotion  of  one  ounce  of  vinegar  to  eight  ounces  of  water;  exclude 


ACCIDENTS  AND  EMERGENCIES, 

Iron  or  Steel  Spicule  in  the  Eye — These  occur  while 

turning  iron  or  steel  in  a lathe,  and  are  best  remedied  by  doubling  back  the  upper 
or  lower  eyelid,  according  to  the  situation  of  the  substance,  and  with  the  flat  edge  ol 
a silver  probe,  taking  up  the  metallic  particle,  using  a lotion  made  by  dissolving  six 
grains  of  sugar  of  lead  and  the  same  of  white  vitriol,  in  six  ounces  of  water,  and  bath- 
ing the  eye  three  times  a day  till  the  inflammation  subsides.  Another  plan  is — Drop 
a solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  (from  one  to  three  grains  of  the  salt  to  one  ounce  of 
water;  into  the  eye,  or  keep  the  eye  open  in  a wineglassful  of  the  solution.  Bathe 
with  cold  lotion,  and  exclude  light  to  keep  down  inflammation. 

Dislocated  Thumb — This  is  frequently  produced  by  a fall. 

Make  a clove  hitch,  by  passing  two  loops  of  cord  over  the  thumb,  placing  a piece  of 
rag  under  the  cord  to  prevent  it  cutting  the  thumb;  then  pull  in  the  same  line  as  the 
thumb.  Afterwards  apply  a cold  lotion. 

Cuts  and  Wounds — Clean  cut  wounds,  whether  deep  or 

superficial,  and  likely  to  heal  by  the  first  intention,  should  always  be  washed  or 
cleaned,  and  at  once  evenly  tind  smoothly  closed  by  bringing  both 
edges  close  together,  and  securing  them  in  that  position  by 
adhesive  plaster.  Cut  thin  strips  of  sticking  plaster,  and  bring  the 
parts  together;  or  if  large  and  deep,  cut  two  broad  pieces,  so  as  to  look  like  the  teeth 
of  a comb,  and  place  one  on  each  side  of  the  wound,  which  must  be  cleaned  pre- 
viously. These  pieces  must  be  arranged  so  that  they  shall  interlace  one  another; 
then,  by  laying  hold  of  the  pieces  on  the  right  side  with  one  hand,  and  those  on  the 
other  side  with  the  other  hand,  and  pulling  them  from  one  another,  the  edges  of 
the  wound  are  brought  together  without  any  difficulty. 

Ordinary  Cuts  are  dressed  by  thin  strips,  applied  by  pressing 

down  the  plaster  on  one  side  of  the  wound,  and  keeping  it  there  and  pulling  in  the 
opposite  direction:  then  suddenly  depressing  the  hand  when  the  edges  of  the  wound 
are  brought  together. 

Contusions  are  best  healed  by  laying  a piece  of  folded  lint, 

well  wetted  with  extract  of  lead,  or  boracic  acid,  on  the  part,  and,  if  there  is 
much  pain,  placing  a hot  bran  poultice  over  the  dressing,  repeating  both,  if  neces- 
sary, every  two  hours.  When  the  injuries  are  very  severe,  lay  a cloth  over  the  part, 
and  suspend  a basin  over  it  filled  with  cold  lotion.  Put  a piece  of  cotton  into  the 
basin,  so  that  it  shall  allow  the  lotion  to  drop  on  the  cloth,  and  thus  keep  it  always 
wet. 

Hemorrhage,  when  caused  by  an  artery  being  divided  or 

torn,  may  be  known  by  the  blood  issuing  out  of  the  wound  in  leaps  or  jerks,  and 
being  of  a bright  scarlet  color  If  a vein  is  injured,  the  blood  is  darkfer  and  flows 
continuously.  To  arrest  the  latter,  apply  pressure  by  means  of  a compress  and 
bandage.  To  arrest  arterial  bleeding,  get  a piece  of  wood  (part  of  a broom  handle 
will  do),  and  tie  a piece  of  tape  to  one  end  of  it;  then  tie  a piece  of  tape  loosely  over 
the  arm,  and  pass  the  other  end  of  the  wood  under  it;  twist  the  stick  round  and 
round  until  the  tape  compresses  the  arm  sufficiently  to  arrest  the  bleeding,  and  then 
confine  the  other  end  by  tying  the  string  around  the  arm.  A compress  made  by 
enfolding  a penny  piece  in  several  folds  of  lint  or  linen  should,  however,  be  first 
placed  under  the  tape  and  over  the  artery.  If  the  bleeding  is  very  obstinate,  and  it 
occurs  in  the  arm,  place  a cork  underneath  the  string,  on  the  inside  of  the  fleshy 
part,  where  the  artery  may  be  felt  beating  by  any  one;  if  in  the  leg,  place  a cork  in 
the  direction  of  a line  drawn  from  the  inner  part  of  the  knee  towards  the  outer  part 
of  the  groin.  It  is  an  excellent  thing  to  accustom  yourself  to  find  out  the  position  of 
these  arteries,  or,  indeed,  any  that  are  superficial,  and  to  explain  to  every  person  in 
your  house  where  they  are,  and  how  to  stop  bleeding.  If  a stick  cannot  be  got  take 
a handkerchief,  make  a cord  bandage  of  it,  and  tie  a knot  in  the  middle;  the  knot 
acts  as  a compress,  and  should  be  placed  over  the  artery,  while  the  two  ends  are  to 
be  tied  around  the  thumb.  Observe  always  to  place  the  ligature  between  the 
wound  and  the  heart.  Putting  your  finger  into  a bleeding  wound,  and  making 
pressure  until  a surgeon  arrives,  will  generally  stop  violent  bleeding. 

Bleeding  from  the  Nose,  from  whatever  cause,  may  gen- 

erally be  stopped  by  putting  a plug  of  lint  into  the  nostrils;  if  this  does  not  do,  apply  a 

327 


ACCIDENTS  AND  EMERGENCIES. 


cold  lotion  to  the  forehead;  raise  the  head,  and  place  over  it  both  arms,  so  that  it  will 
rest  on  the  hands;  dip  the  lint  plug,  slightly  moistened,  into  some  powdered  gum 
arabic,  and  plug  the  nostrils  again;  or  dip  the  plug  into  equal  parts  of  powdered 
gum  arabic  and  alum, and  plug  the  nose,  Or  the  plug  may  be  dipped  in  Friar’s  balsam, 
or  tincture  of  kino.  Heat  should  be  applied  to  the  feet;  and,  in  obstinate  cases,  the 
sudden  shock  of  a cold  key,  or  cold  water  poured  down  the  spine,  will  often  instantly 
stop  the  bleeding.  If  the  bowels  are  confined  take  a purgative.  Injections  of  alum 
solution  from  a small  syringe  into  the  nose  will  often  stop  hemorrhage. 

y lOLENT  Shocks  will  sometimes  stun  a person,  and  he  will  re  • 
main  unconscious.  Untie  strings,  collars,  etc.;  loosen  anything  that  is  tight,  and  in- 
terferes with  the  breathing;  raise  the  head;  see  if  there  is  bleeding  from  any 
part;  apply  smelling-salts  to  the  nose,  and  hot  bottles  to  the  feet. 

In  Concussion,  the  surface  of  the  body  is  cold  and  pale,  and 

the  pulse  weak  and  small,  the  breathing  slow  and  gentle.^  and  the  pupil  of  the  eye 
generally  contracted  or  small.  You  can  get  an  answer  by  speaking  loud,  so  as  to 
arouse  the  patient.  Give  a little  brandy  and  water,  keep  the  place  quiet,  apply 
warmth,  and  do  not  raise  the  head  too  high.  If  you  tickle  the  feet  the  patient 
feels  it. 

In  Compression  of  the  Brain  from  any  cause,  such  as  apo- 
plexy, or  a piece  of  fractured  bone  pressing  on  it,  there  is  loss  of  sensation.  If  you 
tickle  the  feet  of  the  injured  person  he  does  not  feel  it.  You  cannot  arouse  him  so  as 
to  get  an  answer.  The  pulse  is  slow  and  labored;  the  breathing  deep,  labored, 
and  snorting;  the  pupil  enlarged.  Raise  the  head,  loosen  strings  or  tight  things, 
and  send  for  a surgeon.  If  one  cannot  be  got  at  once,  apply  mustard  poultices  to 
the  feet  and  thighs,  leeches  to  the  temples,  and  hot  water  to  the  feet. 

Choking — When  a person  has  a fish  bone  in  the  throat,  insert 

the  forefinger,  press  upon  the  root  of  the  tongue,  so  as  to  induce  vomiting;  it  this 
does  not  do,  let  him  swallow  a large  piece  of  potato  or  soft  bread;  and  if  these  fail, 
give  a mustard  emetic. 

Fainting,  Hysterics,  etc. — Loosen  the  garments,  bathe  the 

temples  with  water  or  eau-de-Cologne;  open  the  window,  admit  plenty  of  fresh  air, 
dash  cold  water  on  the  face,  apply  hot  bricks  to  the  feet,  and  avoid  bustle  and  exces- 
sive sympathy. 

Drowning — Attend  to  the  following  rules: — i.  Lose 

no  time.  2.  Handle  the  body  gently.  3.  Carry  the  body  face  downwards,  with 
the  head  gently  raised,  and  never  hold  it  up  by  the  feet.  4.  Send  for  medical  as- 
sistance immediately,  and  in  the  meantime  act  as  follows;  5.  Strip  the  body;  rub 
it  dry,  then  wrap  it  in  hot  blankets,  and  place  it  in  a warm  bed  in  a warm  room.  6. 
Cleanse  away  the  froth  and  mucus  from  the  nose  and  mouth.  7.  Apply  warm 
bricks,  bottles,  bags  of  sand,  etc.,  to  the  armpits,  between  the  thighs,  and  to  the  soles 
of  the  feet.  8.  Rub  the  surface  of  the  body  with  the  hands  inclosed  in  warm,  dry 
worsted  socks.  9.  If  possible,  put  the  body  into  a warm  bath.  10.  To  restore 
breathing,  put  the  pipe  of  a common  bellows  into  one  nostril,  carefully  ^losing  the 
other,  and  the  mouth;  at  the  same  time  drawing  downwards,  and  pushing  gently 
backwards,  the  upper  part  of  the  windpipe,  to  allow  a more  free  admission  of  air; 
blow  the  bellows  gently,  in  order  to  inflate  the  lungs,  till  the  breast  be  raised  a little; 
then  set  the  mouth  and  noscrils  free,  and  press  gently  on  the  chest;  repeat  this  until 
signs  of  life  appear.  The  body  should  be  covered  the  moment  it  is  placed  on  the 
table,  except  the  face,  and  all  the  rubbing  carried  on  under  the  sheet  or  blanket. 
When  they  can  be  obtained,  a number  of  tiles  or  bricks  should  be  made  tolerably  hot 
in  the  fire,  laid  in  a row  on  the  table,  covered  with  a blanket,  and  the  body  placed 
in  such  a manner  on  them  that  their  heat  may  enter  the  spine.  When  the  patient 
revives,  apply  smelling-salts  to  the  nose,  give  warm  wine  or  brandy  and  water. 
Cautions.— Never  rub  the  body  with  salt  or  spirits.  2.  Never  roll  the  body  on 
casks.  3.  Continue  the  remedies  for  twelve  hours  without  ceasing. 

Hanging — Loosen  the  corcL  or  whatever  it  maj  be  by  which 

the  person  has  been  suspended.  Open  the  temporal  artery  or  jugular  vein,  or  bleed 
from  the  arm;  employ  electricity,  if  at  hand,  and  proceed  as  for  drowning,  taking  the 
additional  precaution  to  apply  eight  or  ten  leeches  to  the  temples. 

328 


POISONS  AND  THEIR  ANTIDOTES. 


Apparent  Death  from  Drunkenness — Raise  the  head; 

loosen  the  clothes,  maintain  warmth  of  surface,  and  give  a mustard  emetic  as  soon 
as  the  person  can  swallow. 

Apoplexy  and  Fits  Generally — Raise  the  head;  loosen  all 

tight  clothes,  strings,  etc.;  apply  cold  lotions  to  the  head,  which  should  be  shaved; 
apply  leeches  to  the  temples,  bleed,  and  send  for  a surgeon. 

Suffocation  from  Noxious  Gases,  etc. — Remove  to  the 

fresh  air;  dash  cold  vinegar  and  water  in  the  face,  neck,  and  breast;  keep  up  the 
warmth  of  the  body;  if  necessary,  apply  mustard  poultices  to  the  soles  of  the  feet  and 
to  the  spine,  and  try  artificial  respirations  as  in  drowning,  with  electricity. 

Lightning  and  Sunstroke — Treat  the  same  as  apoplexy. 


POISONS  AND  THEIR  ANTIDOTES. 

Always  send  immediately  for  a medical  man.  Save  all  fluids 
vomited,  and  articles  of  food,  cups,  glasses,  etc.,  used  by  the 
patient  before  taken  ill,  and  lock  them  up. 

As  a rule  give  emetics  after  poisons  that  cause  sleepiness  and 
raving; — chalk,  milk,  eggs,  butter,  and  warm  water,  or  oil,  after 
poisons  that  cause  vomiting  and  pain  in  the  stomach  and  bowels, 
with  purging;  and  when  there  is  no  inflammation  about  the 
throat,  tickle  it  with  a feather  to  excite  vomiting. 

Vomiting  may  be  caused  by  giving  warm  water, 
with  a teaspoonful  of  mustard  to  the  tumblerful,  well 
stirred  up.  Sulphate  of  zinc  (white  vitriol)  may  be 
used  in  place  of  the  mustard,  or  powdered  alum. 
Powder  of  ipecacuanha,  a teaspoonful  rubbed  up  with 
molasses,  mav  be  employed  for  children.  Tartar 
emetic  shoulA  never  he  given^  as  it  is  excessively 
depressing,  and  uncontrolable  in  its  effects.  The  stomach  pump 
can  only  be  used  by  skillful  hands,  and  even  then  with  caution. 

Opium  and  other  Narcotics — After  vomiting  has  occurred,  cold  water  should  be 
dashed  over  the  face  and  head.  The  patient  must  be  kept  awake,  walked  about  be- 
tween two  strong  persons,  made  to  grasp  the  handles  of  a galvanic  battery,  dosed 
with  strong  coffee,  and  vigorously  slapped.  Belladonna  is  an  antidote  for  opium 
and  for  morphia,  etc.,  its  active  principles;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  latter 
counteract  the  effects  of  belladonna.  But  a knowledge  of  medicine  is  necessary  for 
dealingwith  these  articles. 

Strychnia— Aher  emetics  have  been  freely  and  successfully  given,  the  patient 
should  be  allowed  to  breathe  the  vapor  of  sulphuric  ether,  poured  on  a handker- 
chief and  held  to  the  face,  in  such  quantities  as  to  keep  down  the  tendency  to  con- 
vulsions. Bromide  of  potassium,  twenty  grains  at  a dose,  dissolved  in  syrup,  may  be 
given  every  hour. 

Alcoholic  Poisoning  shoxAd  be  combated  by  emetics,  of  which  the  sulphate  of  zinc, 
given  as  above  directed,  is  the  best.  After  that,  strong  coffee  internally,  and  stim- 
ulation by  heat  externally,  should  be  used. 

Acids  are  sometimes  swallowed  by  mistake.  Alkalies,  lime  water,  magnesia,  or 
common  chalk  mixed  with  water,  may  be  freely  given,  and  afterward  mucilaginous 
drinks,  such  as  thick  gum  water  or  flaxseed  tea. 

Alkalies  are  less  frequently  taken  in  injurious  strength  or  quantity,  but  sometimes 
children  swallow  lye  by  mistake.  Common  vinegar  may  be  given  freely,  and  then 
castor  or  sweet  oil  in  full  doses— a tablespoonflil  at  a time,  repeated  every  half  hour 
or  two. 

Nitrate  of  silver  when  swallowed  is  neutralized  by  common  table  salt  freely  given 
in  solution  in  water. 

329 


DOSES  OF  MEDICINE, 


'fhe  salts  of  mercury  or  arsenic  (often  kept  as  bedbug  poison),  which  are  power- 
Tul  irritants,  are  apt  to  be  very  quickly  fatal.  Milk  or  the  whites  of  eggs  may  be 
freely  given,  and  afterward  a very  thin  paste  of  flour  and  water.  In  these  cases  an 
emetic  is  to  be  given  after  the  poison  is  neutralized. 

Phosphorus  paste,  kept  for  roach  poison  or  in  parlor  matches,  is  sometimes  eaten 
iby  children,  and  Has  been  willfully  taken  for  the  purpose  of  suicide.  It  is  a power- 
ful irritant.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  give  freely  of  magnesia  and  water;  then 
to  give  mucilaginous  drinks,  as  flaxseed  tea,  gum  water  or  sassafras  pith  and  water; 
and  lastly  to  administer  finely-powdered  bone-charcoal,  either  in  pill  or  in  mixture 
with  water. 

In  no  case  of  poisoning  should  there  be  any  avoidable  delay  in  obtaining  the  advice 
of  a physician,  and,  meanwhile,  the  friends  or  bystanders  should  endeavor  to  find 
out  exactly  what  has  been  taken,  so  that  the  treatment  adopted  may  be  as  prompt 
and  effective  as  possible. 

DOSES  OF  MEDICINE. 


NAME  OF  DRUG. 


Aloes 

Anise  Oil 

Aqua  Ammonia(dilute) 

Balsam  Copaiba 

Balsam  of  Fir 

Bismuth 

Bromide  of  Potassium. 

Buchu  Leaves 

Calomel  (as  alterative) 

Castor  Oil 

Citrate  of  Iron 

Citrate  Iron  & Quinine 

Cream  of  Tartar 

Dover’s  Powder 

Elecampane 

Epsom  Salts 

Gallic  Acid 

Iodide  of  Potassium. . . 

Kino 

Mandrake 

Mercury  with  Chalk.. 

Morphine  

Muriate  of  Ammonia. . 

Opium 

Paregoric 

Peppermint  Essence.. 

Pepsin 

Quinine 

Rochelle  Salts 

Rhubarb 

Saltpetre 

Samonin 

Syrup  of  Squills 

Iodide  of  Iron 
*•  Senna 


DOSE. 


NAME  OF  DRUG. 


DOSE. 


3 to  15  grains. 

5 to  15  drops. 

10  to  30  drops. 

10  to  40  drops. 

3 to  10  drops. 

5 to  40  grains. 

5 to  40  grains. 

20  to  40  grains. 
1-12  to  I grain, 
t to  8 teasp’fuls. 

2 to  5 grains. 

3 to  8 grains. 

^ to  3 teasp’fuls. 
5 to  10  grains. 

20  to  60  grains. 

^ to  1 ounce. 

5 to  10  grains. 

2 to  10  grains. 

10  to  30  grains. 

5 to  20  grains. 

2 to  8 grains. 

% to  ^ grain. 

5 to  20  grains. 

^ to  2 grains. 

I teaspoonful. 

5 to  30  drops. 

I to  5 grains. 

1 to  10  grains. 

^ to  1 ounce. 

5 to  30  grains. 

5 to  20  grains. 

2 to  5 grains. 

to  1 teaspful. 
15  to  30  drops. 

I to  6 teasp’fnls. 


Syrup  of  Sarsaparilla. . 

Seneka 

Rhubarb 

Tannic  Acid 

Tinct.  of  Aconite  Root 

Aloes 

Asafoetida  . . . 
Belladona.. . . 

Bloodroot 

Columbo  .... 
Camphor. . . . 

Cayenne 

Castor 

Catechu 

Cinch.  Comp 
Colchicum. . . 

Digitalis 

Ginger 

Gentian  Com 
Guaiac. 

Kino. . . 
Lobelia. 
Muriate  Iron. 
Myrrh. 

Nux  Vomica. 
Opium 
(Laudanum) 
Rhubarb, 

“ & Senna 
Tolu.... 
Valerian 

Turpentine ... 

Wine  Ipecac  (Diaph.). 
“ “ (Emetic). 

“ Colchicum  Root' 


I to  4 teasp’fuls. 

I to  2 teasp’fuls. 

I to  2 teasp’fuls. 

I to  5 grains. 

I to  5 drops, 
i to  8 teasp’fuls. 
^ to  I teasp’ful. 
10  to  30  drops. 

% to  teasp’ful. 
i to  2 teasp’fuls. 

5 to  60  drops. 

10  to  60  drops. 

^ to  I teasp’ful. 
^ to  2 teasp’fuls. 
^ to  4 teasp’fuls. 
15  to  60  drops. 

5 to  20  drops. 

^ to  I teasp’ful 
% to  2 teasp’fuls. 

to  I teasp’ful. 
^ t0  2 teasp’fuls. 
% to  s teasp’ful. 
10  to  30  drops. 

^ to  I teasp’ful. 
5 to  10  drops. 

10  to  25  drops. 

I to  4 teasp’f^uls. 

I to  4 teasp’fuls. 
^ to  I teasp’ful. 
^ to  2 teasp’fuls. 
10  to  40  drops. 

10  to  30  drops. 


A£-e^  years . . 

Doses 

Age,,  mo7iths 
Doses 


Table  of  Proportionate  Poses. 

80  65  50  25-40  20  16  12 

5 3 7 1 1 8 5 

8 T E ^ 8 ¥ ^ 

12 

i 


8 5 2 

t 3 1 

^ 8 ¥ 
6 2 1 

i tV  iV 


330 


lja,rg:cst  Safe  Doses  of  Poisonous  Drug^s* 

Every  person  should  know  the  largest  doses,  which  is  safe  to 
take,  of  active  medicines.  The  following  table  shows  the  larg- 
est doses  admissible,  in  grammes,  and  also  the  equivalent  in 
grains  for  solids,  and  in  minims  for  liquids.  The  doses  are  ex- 
pressed in  fractions,  thus:  1-13,  1-64,  meaning  one-thirteenth, 
one-sixty-fourth.  In  non  professional  hands  it  is  the  safest  plan 
to  strictly  observe  the  rule  of  never  giving  the  maximum  dose  of 
any  medicine: 


Medicines.  Grammes.  Grains. 

Medicines.  Grammes.  Grains. 

Arsenious  Acid 

..  .005 

1-13 

Ext.  Opium 

. .1 

1^ 

Acid,  Carbolic 

..  .05 

% 

“ Stramon,  Seed 

. .05 

% 

“ Hydrocyanic 

. .06 

1 

Fowler’s  Solution 

. .4 

6 min. 

Aconita 

..  .0041 

-16 

Lead,  Sugar  of 

. .06 

9-10 

Aconite  Root 

..  .15 

2^ 

Mercury,  Corrosive  Chlor. 

. .03 

9-20 

Arsenic,  Iodide 

..  .025 

% 

“ Red  Iodide 

. .03 

9-20 

Atropia 

..  .001 

1-64 

Morphia  and  its  Salts 

. .03 

9-20 

Atropia  Sulph. 

..  .001 

1-64 

Nitrate  Silver 

. .03 

9-20 

Barium,  Chlor 

..  .12 

1% 

Oil,  Croton 

. .06 

9-10 

Belladonna,  Herb 

..  .2 

3 

Opium 

. .15 

2% 

“ Root 

..  .1 

Phosphorus 

. .015 

2-9 

Codia 

..  .05 

% 

Potassa,  Arsenite 

. .005 

1-13 

Conia 

..  .001 

1-64 

“ Cyanide 

. .03 

9-20 

Digitalis 

..  .3 

43^ 

Santonine 

. .1 

1^ 

Ext.  Aconite  Leaves 

..  .1 

Soda,  Arsenite 

. .005 

1-13 

“ “ Root 

..  .025 

% 

Strychnia  and  Salts 

. .01 

1-6 

“ Belladonna 

..  .1 

lU 

Tartar  Emetic 

. .2 

3 

“ Cannabis  Indica. .. . 

..  .1 

Veratria 

.005 

1-13 

“ Conium 

..  .18 

2% 

Veratrum  Viride 

.3 

43^ 

“ Digitalis 

..  2 

3 

Zinc,  Chloride 

.015 

2-9 

“ Nux  Vomica,  Ale  — 

..  .05 

% 

“ Valerian  te 

.06 

9-10 

Relative  Value  of  Food  (Reef  par> 

Oysters,  22;  milk,  24;  lobsters,  50;  cream,  56;  codfish,  68;  eggs,  72;  turbot,  84; 
mutton,  87:  venison,  89;  veal,  92;  fowl,  94;  herring,  100;  beef,  100;  duck,  104;  sal- 
mon, 108;  pork,  1 16;  butter,  124;  cheese,  155. 

Percentage  of  Carbon  in  Food. 

Cabbage,  3;  beer,  4;  carrots,  5;  milk,  7;  parsnips,  8;  fish,  9;  potatoes,  12;  eggs,  16; 
beef,  27;  bread,  27;  cheese,  36;  peas,  36;  rice,  38;  corn,  38;  biscuit,  42:  oatmeal,  42; 
sugar,  42;  flour,  46;  bacon,  54;  cocoa,  69;  butter,  79. 

Foot-tons  of  Energy  Per  Ounce  of  Food. 

Cabbage,  t6;  carrots,  20;  milk,  24;  ale,  30;  potatoes,  38;  porter,  42;  beef,  55;  egg, 
57;  ham,  65;  bread,  83;  egg  (yolk),  127;  sugar,  130;  rice,  145;  flour,  148;  arrowroot, 
151;  oatmeal,  152;  cheese,  168;  butter,  281. 

Eoss  of  Meat  in  Cooking. 

100  lbs.  raw  beef  = 67  Ifes.  roast  I too  Ifes.  raw  fowl  = 80  roast 

100  “ “ = 74  “ boiled  100  “ “ = 87  boiled 

400  “ raw  mutton  *=75  “ roast  \ 100  “ raw  fish  = 94  boiled 

Tlie  Percentage  of  Starcli. 

In  common  grains  is  as  follows,  according  to  Prof.  Yeomans:  Rice  flour,  84  to  85; 
Indian  meal,  77  to 80;  oatmeal,  70  to  80;  wheat  flour,  39  to  77;  barley  flour,  67  to  70; 
rye  flour,  50  to  61;  buckwheat,  52;  peas  and  beans,  42  to  43;  potatoes  (75  per  cent, 
water),  13  to  15. 

Tlie  Degrees  of  Sugar. 

In  various  fruits  are:  Peach,  1.6;  raspberry,  4.0;  strawberry,  5.7;  currant,  6.i; 
gooseberry,  7.2;  apple,  7.9;  mulberry,  9.2;  pear,  9.4;  cherry,  io.8;  grape,  14.9. 

331 


Digestion  of  Various  Foods. 

Easy  of  Digestion — Arrowroot,  asparagus,  cauliflower,  baked 

apples,  oranges,  grapes,  strawberries,  peaches. 

Moderately  Digestible — Apples,  raspberries,  bread,  puddings, 

rhubarb,  chocolate,  coffee,  porter. 


Hard  to  Digest— 

-Nuts,  pears 

, plums,  cherries,  cucumbers. 

onions,  carrots,  parsnips. 

TIME  REQUIRED 

FOR  DIGESTION. 

Hrs. 

Min. 

Hrs.  Min. 

1 

30 

Mutton,  roast , - - t 

3 

“ sour 

2 

00 

“ broiled 

10 

00 

Beans,  pod,  boiled 

30 

“ boiled 

00 

Beef,  fresh,  rare,  roasted. 

3 

00 

Oysters,  raw 

55 

“ “ dried 

3 

30 

“ roast 

15 

4 

GO 

“ stewed 

3 

30 

Beets,  boiled 

45 

Pork,  fat  and  lean,  roast 

5 

15 

Bread,  wheat,  fresh 

3 

30 

“ “ “ boiled... 

3 

15 

“ corn 

3 

15 

“ “ “ raw 

3 

00 

Butter  (melted) 

3 

30 

Potatoes,  boiled 

30 

Cabbage,  with  vinegar,  raw 2 

00 

“ baked 

30 

“ boiled 

4 

30 

Rice  boiled 

1 

00 

Cheese  (old,  strong) 

3 

30 

Sago  “ 

...  .1 

45 

Codfish 

2 

00 

Salmon,  salted,  boiled 

4 

00 

Custard,  baked 

2 

45 

Soup,  beef,  vegetable 

4 

00 

Ducks,  domestic,  roasted 

4 

00 

“ chicken  boiled 

3 

00 

“ wild,  “ 

4 

30 

“ oyster  “ 

3 

30 

Eggs,  fresh,  hard,  boiled, 

3 

30 

Tapioca,  boiled : 

2 

(H) 

“ “ soft  “ 

3 

00 

Tripe,  soused,  boiled 

1 

00 

‘‘  “ fried 

3 

30 

Trout,  fresh,  boiled  or  fried. 

1 

30 

Goose,  roast.. 

2 

00 

Turkey,  domestic,  roast 

2 

00 

Lamb,  fresh,  boiled 

2 

30 

“ wild,  roast. 

2 

18 

Liver,  beef,  boiled 

2 

00 

Turnips,  boiled 

3 

30 

Milk,  boiled 

2 

00 

Veal,  fresh,  broiled 

4 

00 

“ raw .... 

2 

15 

“ fresh,  fried 

4 

30 

Parsnips,  boiled 

. 2 

30 

Venison  steak,  broiled 

1 

35 

Fat,  Water  and  Muscle  Properties  of  Food. 


100  PARTS. 

Water.  Muscle.  Fat. 

100  PARTS. 

Water.  Muscle. 

Fat. 

Cucumbers 

97.0 

1.5 

1.0 

Mutton 

44.0 

12.5 

40.0 

Turnips 

....94.4 

1.1 

4.0 

Pork 

38.5 

10.00 

50.0 

C abbage 

90.0 

4.0 

5.0 

Beans 

14.8 

24.0 

57.7 

Milk,  cows’ 

.....86.0 

5.0 

8.0 

Buckwheat 

14.2 

8.6 

75.4 

Apples 

84.0 

5.0 

10.0 

Barley - . 

....  14.0 

15.0 

68.8 

Eggs,  yolk  of. ... , 

79.0 

15.0 

27.0 

Corn  

14.0 

12.0 

73.0 

Potatoes 

75.2 

1.4 

22.5 

Peas 

14.0 

23.4 

60.0 

Veal 

10.1 

1.65 

Wheat 

14.0 

14.6 

69.4 

Eggs,  white  of. . . . 

53.0 

17.0 

.0 

Oats 

13.6 

17.0 

66.4 

Lamb 

....  50.5 

11.0 

35.0 

Rice 

6.5 

79.5 

Beef 

50.0 

15.0 

30.0 

Cheese 

65.0 

19.0 

Chicken 

46.0 

18.0 

32.0 

Butter 

100.0 

Percentage  of  Nutrition  in  Various  Articles  of  Food. 

Raw  cucumbers,  2;  raw  mellons,  3;  boiled  turnips,  4^;  milk,  7;  cabbage,  73^; 
currants,  10;  whipped  eggs,  13;  beets,  14;  apples,  16;  peaches,  20;  boiled  codfish, 
21;  broiled  venison,  22;  potatoes,  223^1  ffied  veal,  24;  roast  pork,  24;  roast  poul- 
try, 26;  raw  beef,  26;  raw  grapes,  27 ; raw  plums,  29 ; broiled  mutton,  30;  oatmeal 
porridge,  75;  rye  bread,  79;  boiled  beans,  87;  boiled  rice,  88;  barley  bread,  88; 
wheat  bread,  90;  baked  corn  bread,  91;  boiled  barley,  92;  butter,  93;  boiled  peas, 
93;  raw  oils,  94. 


332 


USEFUL  RECIPES,  TRADE  SECRETS,  ETC. 


Toothache  Cure.  Compound  tinct.  benzoin  is  said  to  be  one 

of  the  most  certain  and  speedy  cures  for  toothache;  pour  a few  drops  on  cottpn,  and 
press  at  once  into  the  diseased  cavity,  when  the  pain  will  almost  instantly  cease. 

Toothache  Tincture.  Mix  tannin,  i scruple;  mastic,  3 grains; 

ether,  2 dr^ms.  Apply  on  cotton  wool,  to  the  tooth,  previously  dried. 

Charcoal  Tooth  Paste.  Chlorate  of  potash,  dram;  mint 

water,  i ounce.  Dissolve  and  add  powdered  charcoal,  2 ounces;  honey,  i ounce. 

Excellent  Mouth  Wash.  Powdered  white  Castile  soap,  2 

drams;  alcohol,  3 ounces;  honey,  1 ounce;  essence  or  extract  jasmine,  2 drams. 
Dissolve  the  soap  in  alcohol  and  add  honey  and  extract. 

Removing  Tartar  from  the  Teeth.  This  preparation  is  used  by 

dentists.  Pure  muriatic  acid,  one  ounce;  water,  one  ounce;  honey,  two  ounces;  mix 
thoroughly.  Take  a toothbrush,  and  wet  it  freely  with  this  preparation,  and  briskly 
rub  the  black  teeth,  and  in  a moment’s  time  they  will  be  perfectly  white;  then  im- 
mediately wash  out  the  mouth  well  with  water,  that  the  acid  may  not  act  on  the 
enamel  of  the  teeth.  This  should  be  done  only  occasionally. 

Bad  Breath.  Bad  breath  from  catarrh,  foul  stomach,  or  bad 

teeth,  may  be  temporarily  relieved  by  diluting  a little  bromo  chloralum  with  eight 
or  ten  parts  of  water,  and  using  it  as  a gargle,  and  swallowing  a few  drops  before 
going  out.  A pint  of  bromo  chloralum  costs  fifty  cents,  but  a small  vial  will  last  a 
long  time. 

Good  Tooth  Powder.  Procure,  at  a druggist’s,  half  an  ounce  of 

powdered  orris  root,  half  an  ounce  of  prepared  chalk  finely  pulverized,  and  two  or 
three  small  lumps  of  Dutch  pink.  Let  them  all  be  mixed  in  a mortar,  and  pounded 
together.  The  Dutch  pink  is  to  impart  a pale  reddish  color.  Keep  it  in  a close  box. 

Another  Tooth  Powder.  Mix  together,  in  a mortar,  half  an 

ounce  of  red  Peruvian  bark,  finely  powdered;  a quarter  of  an  ounce  of  powdered 
myrrh;  and  a quarter  of  an  ounce  of  prepared  chalk. 

A Safe  Depilatory.  Take  a strong  solution  of  sulphuret  of 

barium,  and  add  enough  finely  powdered  starch  to  make  a paste.  Apply  to  the 
roots  of  the  hair  and  allow  it  to  remain  on  a few  minutes,  then  scrape  off  with  the 
back  edge  of  a knife  blade,  and  rub  with  sweet  oil. 

Quick  Depilatory  for  Removing  Hair.  Best  slacked  lime,  6 

ounces;  orpiment,  fine  powder,  1 ounce.  Mix  with  a covered  sieve  and  preserve  in 
a dry  place  in  closely  stoppered  bottles.  In  using  mix  the  powder  with  enough 
water  to  form  a paste,  and  apply  to  the  hair  to  be  removed.  In  about  five  minutes, 
or  as  soon  as  its  caustic  action  is  felt  on  the  skin,  remove,  as  in  shaving,  with  an 
ivory  or  bone  paper  knife,  wash  with  cold  water  freely,  and  apply  cold  cream. 

Tricopherous  for  the  Hair.  Castor  oil,  alcohol,  each  i pint; 

tinct.  cantharides,  one  ounce;  oil  bergamot,  ounce;  alkanet  coloring,  to  color  as 
wished.  Mix  and  let  it  stand  forty-eight  hours,  with  occasional  shaking,  and  then 
filter. 

Liquid  Shampoo.  Take  bay  rum,  2)/^  pints;  water,  pint; 

glycerine,  i ounce;  tinct.  cantharides,  2 drams;  carbonate  of  ammonia,  2 drams 
borax,  34  ounce;  or  take  of  New  England  rum,  1^  pints;  bay  rum,  i pint;  water  34 
pint;  glycerine,  i ounce;  tinct.  cantharides,  2 drams;  ammon.  carbonate,  2 
drams;  borax,  34  ounce;  the  salts  to  be  dissolved  in  water  and  the  other  ingredi- 
ents to  be  added  gradually. 

Cleaning  Hair  Brushes.  Put  a teaspoonful  or  dessertspoonful 

of  aqua  ammonia  into  a basin  half  full  of  water,  comb  the  loose  hairs  out  of  the 
brush,  then  agitate  the  water  briskly  with  the  brush,  and  rinse  it  well  with  clear 
water. 

Hair  Invigorator.  Bay  rum,  two  pints;  alcohol,  one  pint;  cas- 
tor oil,  one  ounce;  carb.  ammonia,  half  an  ounce;  tincture  of  cantharides,  one 
ounce.  Mix  them  well.  This  compound  will  promote  the  growth  of  the  hair  and 
prevent  it  from  falling  out. 


333 


USEFUL  RECIPES,  ETC. 

'For  Dandruff.  Take  gljcei^ne,  four  ounces;  tincture  of  carl* 

tharides,  five  ounces;  bay  rum,  four  ounces;  water,  two  ounces.  Mix,  and  apply  once 
a day,  and  rub  well  down  the  scalp. 

Mustache  Grower.  Simple  cerate,  i ounce;  oil  bergamot,  lo 

minims;  saturated  tinct.  of  cantharides,  15  minims.  Rub  them  together  thoroughly, 
or  melt  the  cerate  and  stir  in  the  tincture  while  hot,  and  the  oil<is  soon  as  it  is 
nearly  cold,  then  run  into  molds  or  rolls.  To  be  applied  as  a pomade,  rubbing  in 
at  the  roots  of  the  hair.  Care  must  be  used  not  to  inflame  the  skin  by  too  frequent 
application. 

Razor-strop  Paste.  Wet  the  strop  with  a little  sweet  oil,  and 

apply  a little  flour  of  emery  evenly  over  the  surface. 

Shaving  Compound.  Half  a pound  of  plain  white  soap,  dis- 
solved in  a small  quantity  of  alcohol,  as  little  as  can  be  used;  add  a tablespoonful 
■of  pulverized  borax.  Shave  the  soap  and  put  it  in  a small  tin  basin  or  cup;  place  it 
on  the  fire  in  a dish  of  boiling  water;  when  melted,  add  the  alcohol,  and  remove 
from  the  fire;  stir  in  oil  of  bergamot  sufficient  to  perfume  it. 

Cure  for  Prickly  Heat.  Mix  a large  portion  of  wheat  bran 

with  either  cold  or  lukewarm  water,  and  use  it  as  a bath  twice  or  thrice  a day. 
•Children  who  are  covered  with  prickly  heat  in  warm  weather  will  be  thus  effectu- 
ally^ relieved  from  that  tormenting  eruption.  As  soon  as  it  begins  to  appear  on  the 
ineck,  face,  or  arms,  commence  using  the  bran  water  on  these  parts  repeatedly 
through  the  day,  and  it  may  probably  spread  no  farther.  If  it  does,  the  bran  water 
ibath  will  certainly  cure  it,  if  persisted  in. 

To  Remove  Corns  from  Between  the  Toes.  These  corns  are  gen- 

'erally  more  painful  than  any  others,  and  are  frequently  situated  as  to  be  almost  in- 
accessible to  the  usual  remedies.  Wetting  them  several  times  a day  with  hartshorn 
will  in  most  cases  cure  them.  Try  it. 

Superior  Cologne  Water.  Oil  of  lavender,  two  drams;  oil  of 

rosemary,  one  dram  and  a half;  orange,  lemon  and  bergamot,  one  dram  each 
of  the  oil:  also  two  drams  of  the  essence  of  musk,  attar  of  rose  ten  drops,  and  a 
pint  of  proof  spirit.  Shake  all  together  thoroughly  three  times  a day  for  a week. 

Inexhaustible  Smelling  Salts.  Sal  tartar,  three  drams;  mur- 
iate ammonia,  granulated,  6 drams;  oil  neroli,  5 minims;  oil  lavender  flowers,  5 min- 
ims; oil  rose,  3 minims;  spirits  ammonia,  15  minims.  Put  into  the  pungent  a small 
piece  of  sponge  filling  about  one-fourth  the  space,  and  pour  on  it  a due  proportion 
of  the  oils,  then  put  in  the  mixed  salts  until  the  bottle  is  three-fourths  full,  and  pour 
on  the  spirits  of  ammonia  in  proper  proportion  and  close  the  bottle. 

Volatile  Salts  for  Pungents.  Liquor  ammon.,  fort,  i pint,  oil 

lavender  flowers,  i dram,  oil  rosemary,  fine,  i dram,  oil  bergamot,  ^ dram, 
oil  peppermint,  10  minims.  Mix  thoroughly  and  fill  pungents  or  keep  in  well 
stoppered  bottle.  Another  formula  is,  sesqui-carbonate  of  ammonia,  small  pieces,  10 
ounces,  concentrated  liq.  ammonia,  5 ounces.  Put  the  sesqui-carb.  in  a wide  mouth 
jar  with  air-tight  stopper,  perfume  the  liquor  ammonia  to  suit  and  pour  over  the  car- 
bonate, close  tightly  the  lid  and  place  in  a cool  place,  stir  with  a stiff  spa  ula  every 
other  day  for  a week,  and  then  keep  it  closed  for  two  weeks,  or  until  it  becomes 
hard,  when  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Paste  for  Papering  Boxes.  Boil  water  and  stir  in  batter  of 

wheat  or  rye  flour.  Let  it  boil  one  minute,  take  off  and  strain  through  a colander. 
Add,  while  boiling,  a little  glue  or  powdered  alum.  Do  plenty  of  stirring  while  the 
p^ste  is  cooking,  and  make  of  consistency  that  will  spread  nicely. 

Aromatic  Spirit  of  Vinegar.  Acetic  acid,  No.  8,  pure,  8 

ounces;  camphor,  ounce.  ^Dissolve  and  add  oil  lemon,  oil  lavender  flowers,  each 
two  drams;  oil  cassia,  oil  cloves,  dram  each.  Thoroughly  mix  and  keep  in 
well  stoppered  bottle. 

Rose-Water.  Preferable  to  the  distilled  for  a perfume,  or  for 

culinary  purposes:  Attar  of  rose,  twelve  drops;  rub  it  up  with  half  an  ounce  of 
white  sugar  and  two  drams  carbonate  magnesia,  then  add  gradually  one  quart  of 
water  and  two  ounces  of  proof  spirit,  and  filter  through  paper. 

384 


USEFUL  EECIPES,  ETC. 

Bay  Rum.  French  proof  spirit,  one  gallon;  extract  baj,  six 

ounces.  Mix  and  color  with  caramel;  needs  no  filtering. 

Fine  Lavender  Water.  Mix  together,  in  a clean  bottle,  a pint 
of  inodorous  spirit  of  wine,  an  ounce  of  oil  of  lavender,  a teaspoonful  of  oil  of  berga- 
mot, and  a tablespoonful  of  oil  of  ambergris. 

The  Virtues  of  Turpentine.  After  a housekeeper  fullj  realizes 

the  worth  of  turpentine  in  the  household,  she  is  never  willing  to  be  without  a sup- 
ply of  it.  It  gives  quick  relief  to  burns,  it  is  an  excellent  application  for  corns,  it  is 
good  for  rheumatism  and  sore  throats,  and  it  is  the  quickest  remedy  for  convulsions 
or  fits.  Then  it  is  a sure  preventive  against  molj^s  by  just  dropping  a trifle  in  the 
bottom  of  drawers,  chests  and  cupboards,  it  will  render  the  garments  secure  from 
injury  during  the  summer.  It  will  keep  ants  and  bugs  from  closets  and  store-rooms 
by  putting  a few  drops  in  the  corners  and  upon  the  shelves  it  is  sure  destruction  to 
bedbugs,  and  will  effectually  drive  them  away  from  their  haunts  if  thoroughly  ap- 
plied to  all  the  joints  of  the  bedstead  in  the  spring  cleaning  time,  and  injures  neither 
furniture  nor  clothing.  A spoonful  of  it  added  to  a pail  of  warm  water  is  excellent 
for  cleaning  paint.  A little  in  suds  washing  days  lightens  laundry  labor. 

A Perpetual  Paste  is  a paste  that  maj  be  made  by  dissolving 

an  ounce  of  alum  in  a quart  of  warm  water.  When  cold,  add  as  much  flour  as  will 
make  it  the  consistency  of  cream,  then  stir  into  it  half  a teaspoonful  of  powdered  re- 
sin, and  two  or  three  cloves.  Boil  it  to  a consistency  of  mush,  stirring  all  the  time.  It 
will  keep  for  twelve  months,  and  when  dry  may  be  softened  with  warm  water. 

Paste  for  Scrap  Books.  Take  half  a teaspoonful  of  starchy 

same  of  flour,  pour  on  a little  boiling  water,  let  it  stand  a minute,  add  more  water, 
stir  and  cook  it  until  it  is  thick  enough  to  starch  a shirt  bosom.  It  spreads  smooth, 
sticks  well  and  will  not  mold  or  discolor  paper.  Starch  alone  will  make  a very  good- 
paste. 

A Strong  Paste.  A paste  that  will  neither  decay  nor  become 

moldy.  Mix  good  clean  flour  with  cold  water  into  a thick  paste  well  blended  to- 
gether, then  add  boiling  water,  stirring  well  up  until  it  is  of  a consistency  that  can 
be  easily  and  smoothly  spread  with  a brush;  add  to  this  a spoonful  or  two  of  brown 
sugar,  a little  corrosive  sublimate  and  about  half  a dozen  drops  of  oil  of  lavender, 
and  you  will  have  a paste  that  will  hold  with  wonderful  tenacity. 

A Brilliant  Paste.  A brilliant  and  adhesive  paste,  adapted  to 

fancy  articles,  may  be  made  by  dissolving  caseine  precipitated  from  milk  by  acetic 
acid  and  washed  with  pure  water  in  a saturated  solution  of  borax. 

A Sugar  Paste.  In  order  to  prevent  the  gum  from  cracking,  to 
ten  parts  by  weight  of  gum  arabicand  three  parts  of  sugar,  add  water  until  the  de- 
sired consistency  is  obtained.  If  a very  strong  paste  is  required,  add  a quantity  of 
flour  equal  in  weight  to  the  gum,  without  boiling  the  mixture.  The  paste  improves 
in  strength  when  it  begins  to  ferment. 

Tin  Box  Cement.  To  fix  labels  to  tin  boxes  either  of  the  follow- 
ing will  answer:  I.  Soften  good  glue  in  water,  then  boil  it  in  strong  vinegar,  and 
thicken  the  liquid  while  boiling  with  fine  wheat  flour,  so  that  a paste  results  2. 
Starch  paste,  with  which  a little  Venice  turpentine  has  been  incorporated  while 
warm. 

Paper  ^nd  Leather  Paste.  Cover  four  parts,  by  weight,  of 

glue,  with  fifteen  parts  of  cold  water,  and  allow  it  to  soak  for  several  hours,  then 
warm  moderately  till  the  solution  is  perfectly  clear,  and  dilute  with  sixty  parts  of 
boiling  water,  intimately  stirred  in.  Next  prepare  a solution  of  thirty  parts  of  starch 
in  two  hundred  parts  of  cold  water,  so  as  to  form  a thin  homogeneous  liquid,  free 
from  lumps,  and  pour  the  boiling  glue  solution  into  it  with  thorough  stirring,  and  a 
the  same  time  keep  the  mass  boiling. 

Commercial  Mucilage.  The  best  quality  of  mucilage  in  the 

market  is  made  by  dissolving  clear  glue  in  equal  volumes  of  water  and  strong  vine- 
gar, and  adding  one-fourth  of  an  equal  volume  of  alcohol,  and  a small  quantity  of  a 
solution  of  alum  in  water.  Some  of  the  cheaper  preparations  offered  for  sale  are 
merely  boiled  starch  or  flour,  mixed  with  nitric  acid  to  prevent  their  gelatinizing, 

335 


USEFUL  RECIPES,  ETC, 

Acid-Proof  Paste.  A paste  formed  by  mixing  powdered  glass 

with  a concentrated  solution  of  silicate  of  soda  makes  an  excellent  acid-proof 
cement. 

Paste  to  Fasten  Cloth  to  Wood.  Take  a plump  pound  of  wheat 

flour,  one  tablespoonful  of  powdered  resin,  one  tablespoonful  of  finely  powdered 
alum,  and  rub  the  mixture  in  a suitable  vessel,  with  water,  to  a uniform,  smooth 
paste;  transfer  this  to  a small  kettle  over  a fire,  and  stir  until  the  paste  is  perfectly 
homogeneous  without  lumps.  As  soon  as  the  mass  has  become  so  stiflf  that  the 
stirrer  remains  upright  in  it,  transfer  it  to  another  vessel  and  cover  it  up  so  that  no 
skin  may  form  on  its  surface. 

This  paste  is  applied  in  a very  thin  layer  to  the  surface  of  the  table;  the  cloth,  or 
leather,  is  then  laid  and  pressed  upon  it,  and  smoothed  with  a roller.  The  ends  are 
cut  off  after  drying.  If  leather  is  to  be  fastened  on,  this  must  first  be  moistened 
with  water.  The  paste  is  then  applied,  and  the  leather  rubbed  smooth  with  a 
cloth. 

Paste  for  Printing  Office.  Take  two  gallons  of  cold  water 

and  one  quart  wheat  flour,  rub  out  all  the  lumps,  then  add  one-fourth  pound  of 
finely  pulverized  alum  and  boil  the  mixture  for  ten  minutes,  or  until  a thick  con- 
sistency is  reached.  Now  add  one  quart  of  hot  water  and  boil  again,  until  the  paste 
becomes  a pale  brown  color,  and  thick.  The  paste  should  be  well  stirred  during 
both  processes  of  cooking.  Paste  thus  made  will  keep  sweet  for  two  weeks  and 
prove  very  adhesive. 

To  Take  Smoke  Stains  from  Walls.  An  easy  and  sure  way  to 

remove  smoke  stains  from  common  plain  ceilings  is  to  mix  wood  ashes  with  the 
whitewash  just  before  applying.  A pint  of  ashes  to  a small  pail  of  whitewash  is  suf- 
ficient, but  a little  more  or  less  will  do  no  harm. 

To  Remove  Stains  from  Broadcloth.  Take  an  ounce  of  pipe 

clay,  which  has  been  ground  fine,  mix  it  with  twelve  drops  of  alcohol  and  the  same 
quantity  of  spirits  of  turpentine.  Whenever  you  wish  to  remove  any  stains  from 
cloth,  moisten  a little  of  this  mixture  with  alcohol  and  rub  it  on  the  spots.  Let  it  re' 
main  till  dry,  then  rub  it  off  with  a woolen  cloth,  and  the  spots  will  disappear. 

To  Remove  Red  Stains  of  Fruit  from  Linen.  Moisten  the 

cloth  and  hold  it  over  a piece  of  burning  sulphur,  then  wash  thoroughly,  or  else  the 
spots  may  reappear. 

To  Remove  Oil  Stains.  Take  three  ounces  of  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine, and  one  ounce  of  essence  of  lemon,  mix  well,  and  apply  it  as  you  would  any 
other  scouring  drops.  It  will  take  out  all  the  grease. 

Iron  Stains  may  be  removed  by  the  salt  of  lemons.  Many 

stains  may  be  removed  by  dipping  the  linen  in  sour  buttermilk,  and  then  drying  it 
in  a hot  sun;  wash  it  in  cold  water,  repeat  this  three  or  four  times. 

To  Remove  Oil  Stains  from  Wood.  Mix  together  fuller’s  earth 

and  soap  lees,  and  rub  it  into  the  boards.  Let  it  dry  and  then  scour  it  off  with  some 
strong  soft  soap  and  sand,  or  use  lees  to  scour  it  with.  It  should  be  put  on  hot, 
which  may  easily  be  done  by  heating  the  lees. 

To  Remove  Tea  Stains.  Mix  thoroughly  soft  soap  and  salt — say 

a tablespoonful  of  salt  to  a teacupful  of  soap,  rub  on  the  spots,  and  spread  the  cloth 
on  the  grass  where  the  sun  will  shine  on  it.  Let  it  lie  two  or  three  days,  then  wash. 
If  the  spots  are  v/et  occasionally  while  lying  on  the  grass,  it  will  hasten  the  bleach- 
ing 

To  Remove  Stains  from  Muslin.  If  you  have  stained  vour 

muslin  or  gingham  dress,  or  your  white  pants  with  berries,  before  wetting  with  any- 
thing else,  pour  boiling  water  through  the  stains  and  they  will  disappear.  Before 
fruit  juice  dries  it  can  often  be  removed  by  cold  water,  using  a sponge  and  towel  if 
necessary. 

To  Remove  Acid  Stains.  Stains  caused  by  acids  maj^  be  re- 
moved by  tying  some  pearlash  up  in  the  stained  part;  scrape  some  soap  in  cold,  soft 
water,  and  boil  the  linen  until  the  stain  is  gone. 

330 


USEFUL  EECIPBS,  ETC. 

To  Disinfect  Sinks  and  Drains.  Copperas  dissolved  in  water, 

one-fourth  of  a pound  to  a gallon,  and  poured  into  a sink  and  water  drain  occasion- 
ally, will  keep  such  places  sweet  and  wholesome.  A little  chloride  of  lime,  say  half 
a pound  to  a gallon  of  water,  will  have  the  same  effect,  and  either  of  these  costs  but 
a trifle< 

A preparation  may  be  made  at  home  which  will  answer  about  as  well  as  the  chlo- 
ride of  lime.  Dissolve  a bushel  of  salt  in  a barrel  of  water,  and  with  the  salt  water 
slack  a barrel  of  lime,  which  should  be  made  wet  enough  to  form  a thin  paste  or 
wash. 

To  Disinfect  a Cellar.  A.  damp,  musty  cellar  may  be  sweetened 

by  sprinkling  upon  the  floor  pulverized  copperas,  chloride  of  lime,  or  even  common 
lime.  The  most  effective  means  I have  ever  used  to  disinfect  decaying  vegetable 
matter  is  chloride  of  lime  in  solution.  One  pound  may  be  dissolved  in  two  gallons  of 
water.  Plaster  of  Paris  has  also  been  found  an  excellent  absorbent  of  noxious  odors. 
If  used  one  part  with  three  parts  of  charcoal,  it  will  be  found  still  better. 

How  to  Thaw  Out  a Water  Pipe.  Water  pipes  usually  freeze  up 

when  exposed,  for  inside  the  walls,  where  they  cannot  be  reached,  they  are  of 
should  be  packed  to  prevent  freezing.  To  thaw  out  a frozen  pipe,  bundle  a news- 
paper into  a torch,  light  it,  and  pass  it  along  the  pipe  slowly.  The  ice  will  yield  to 
this  much  quicker  than  to  hot  water  or  wrappings  of  hot  cloths,  as  is  the  common 
practice. 

To  Prevent  Mold.  A small  quantity  of  carbolic  acid  added  to 

paste,  mucilage,  and  ink,  will  prevent  mold.  Art  ounce  of  the  acid  to  a gallon  of 
whitewash  will  keep  cellars  and  dairies  from  the  disagreeable  odor  which  often 
taints  milk  and  meat  kept  in  such  places. 

Economical  Fire  Kindler.  One  may  be  made  by  dipping  corn 

cobs  in  a mixture  of  melted  resin  and  tar,  and  drying. 

Thawing  Frozen  Gas  Pipe.  Mr.  F.  H.  Shelton  says:  “I  took 

offfrom  over  the  pipe  some  four  or  five  inches,  just  a crust  of  earth,  and  then  put  a 
couple  of  bushels  of  lime  in  the  space,  poured  water  over  it,  and  slacked  it,  and 
then  put  canvas  over  that,  and  rocks  on  the  canvas,  so  as  to  keep  the  wind  from  get- 
ting underneath.  Next  morning,  on  returning  there,  I found  that  the  frost  had  been 
drawn  out  from  the  ground  for  nearly  three  feet.  You  can  appreciate  what  an  ad- 
vantage that  was,  for  picking  through  frozen  ground,  with  the  thermometer  below 
zero,  is  no  joke.  Since  then  we  have  tried  it  several  times.  It  is  an  excellent  plan 
if  you  have  time  enough  to  let  the  lime  work.  In  the  daytime  you  cannot  afford  to 
waste  the  time,  but  if  you  have  a spare  night  in  which  to  work,  it  is  worth  while  to 
try  it.” 

How  to  Test  a Thermometer.  The  common  thermometer  in  a 

japanned  iron  case  is  usually  inaccurate.  To  test  the  thermometer,  bring  water 
into  the  condition  of  active  boiling,  warm  the  thermometer  gradually  in  the  steam 
and  then  plunge  it  into  the  water.  If  it  indicate  a fixed  temperature  of  two  hundred 
and  twelve  degrees,  the  instrument  is  a good  one. 

How  to  Keep  Eggs  Fresh.  The  great  secret  in  keeping  eggs 

consists  in  entirely  excluding  the  air  from  the  interior.  The  lining  next  to  the  shell 
is,  when  in  its  natural  stage,  impervious  to  air,  and  the  albumen  is  calculated  to  sus- 
tain it,  but  dampness  and  heat  will  cause  decay,  and,  if  the  egg  is  allowed  to  lie  in 
one  position,  especially  upon  one  side,  the  yolk  sinks  through  the  albumen  and  set- 
tles upon  the  lining,  and,  not  possessing  proper  qualities  for  preserving  the  skin  in 
a healthy  condition,  it  dries,  and  air  penetrates  and  begins  the  work  of  destruction. 
Where  eggs  are  set  upon  their  small  ends,  the  yolk  is  much  less  liable  to  reach 
the  lining  of  the  shell.  Where  eggs  are  packed  in  a barrel,  keg  or  bucket,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  turn  the  whole  quantity  onto  a different  side  once  in  a while. 

Indelible  Ink.  An  indelible  ink  that  cannot  be  erased,  even 

with  acids,  can  be  obtained  from  the  following  recipe;  To  good  gall  ink  add  a 
strong  solution  of  Prussian  blue  dissolved  in  distilled  water.  This  will  form  a writ- 
ing fluid  which  cannot  be  erased  without  destruction  of  the  paper.  The  ink  will 
write  greenish  blue,  but  afterward  will  turn  black. 

337 


USEFUL  RECIPES,  ETC. 

To  Get  a Broken  Cork  Out  of  a Bottle.  If  in  drawing  a cork,  it 

breaks,  and  the  lower  part  falls  down  into  the  liquid,  tie  a long  loop  in  a bit  of 
twine,  or  small  cord,  and  put  it  in,  holding  the  bottle  so  as  to  bring  the  piece  of  cork 
near  to  the  lower  part  of  the  neck.  Catch  it  in  the  loop,  so  as  to  hold  it  stationary. 
You  can  then  easily  extract  it  with  a corkscrew. 

A Wash  for  Cleaning  Silver.  Mix  together  half  an  ounce  of 

fine  salt,  half  an  ounce  of  powdered  alum,  and  half  an  ounce  of  cream  of  tartar.  Put 
them  into  a large  white-ware  pitcher,  and  pour  on  two  quarts  of  water,  and  stir  them 
frequently,  till  entirely  dissolved.  Then  transfer  the  mixture  to  clean  bottles,  and 
cork  them  closely.  Before  using  it,  shake  the  bottles  well.  Pour  some  of  the  liquid 
into  a bowl,  and  wash  the  silver  all  over  with  it,  using  an  old,  soft,  fine  linen  cloth. 
Let  it  stand  about  ten  minutes,  and  then  rub  it  dry,  with  a buckskin.  It  will  make  the 
silver  look  like  new. 

To  Remove  the  Odor  from  a Vial.  The  odor  of  its  last  contents 

may  be  removed  from  a vial  by  filling  it  with  cold  water,  and  letting  it  stand  in  any 
airy  place  uncorked  for  three  days,  changing  the  water  every  day. 

To  Loosen  a Glass  Stopper.  The  manner  in  which  apotheca- 
ries loosen  glass  stoppers  when  there  is  difficulty  in  getting  them  out,  is  to  press  the 
thumb  of  the  right  hand  very  hard  against  the  lower  part  of  the  stopper,  and  then 
give  the  stopper  a twist  the  other  way,  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  left 
hand,  keeping  the  bottle  stiff  in  a steady  position. 

To  Make  Shoes  or  Boots  Water-Proof.  Melt  together,  in  a 

pipkin,  equal  quantities  of  beeswax  and  mutton  suet.  While  liquid  rub  it  over  the 
leather,  including  the  soles. 

To  Soften  Boots  and  Shoes.  Kerosene  will  soften  boots  and 

shoes  which  have  been  hardened  by  water,  and  render  them  as  pliable  as  new. 

To  Remove  Stains,  Spots,  and  Mildew  from  Furniture.  Take 

half  a pint  of  ninety-eight  per  cent,  alcohol,  a quarter  of  an  ounce  each  of  pulver- 
ized resin  and  gum  shellac,  add  half  a pint  of  linseed  oil,  shake  well  and  apply  with 
a brush  or  sponge.  Sweet  oil  will  remove  finger  marks  from  varnished  furniture, 
and  kerosene  from  oiled  furniture. 

To  Freshen  Gilt  Frames.  Gilt  frames  may  be  revived  by  care- 
fully dusting  them,  and  then  washing  with  one  ounce  of  soda  beaten  up  with  the 
whites  of  three  eggs.  Scraped  patches  should  be  touched  up  with  gold  paint.  Cas- 
tile soap  and  water,  with  proper  care,  may  be  used  to  clean  oil  paintings.  Other 
methods  should  not  be  employed  without  some  skill. 

To  Fill  Cracks  in  Plaster.  Use  vinegar  instead  of  water  to 
mix  your  plaster  of  Paris.  The  resultant  mass  will  be  like  putty,  and  will  not  “set” 
for  twenty  or  thirty  minutes,  whereas  if  you  use  water  the  plaster  will  become  hard 
almost  immediately,  before  you  have  time  to  use  it.  Push  it  into  the  cracks  and 
smooth  it  off  nicely  with  a tableknife. 

To  Toughen  Lamp  Chimneys  and  Glassware.  Immerse  the  ar- 
ticle in  a pot  filled  with  cold  water,  to  which  some  common  salt  has  been  added. 
Boil  the  water  well,  then  cool  slowly.  Glass  treated  in  this  way  will  resist  any  sud-« 
den  change  of  temperature. 

To  Remove  Paint  from  Window- Glass.  Rub  it  well  with  hot, 

sharp  vinegar.  . 

To  Clean  Stovepipe.  A piece  of  zinc  put  on  the  live  coals  in 

the  stove  will  clean  out  the  stovepipe. 

To  Brighten  Carpets.  Carpets  after  the  dust  has  been  beaten 
out  may  be  brightened  by  scattering  upon  them  cornmeal  mixed  with  salt  and  then 
sweeping  it  off.  Mix  salt  and  meal  in  equal  proportions.  Carpets  should  be  thor- 
oughly beaten  on  the  wrong  side  first  and  then  on  the  right  side,  after  which  spots 
may  be  removed  by  the  use  of  ox-gall  or  ammonia  and  water. 

Kerosene  Stains  in  Carpets  may  be  removed  by  sprinkling 

buckwheat  flour  over  the  spot.  If  one  sprinkling  is  not  enough,  repeat. 

338 


USEFUL  RECIPES,  ETC, 

To  Keep  Flowers  Fresh  exclude  them  from  the  air.  To  do  this 

wet  them  thoroughly,  put  in  a damp  box,  and  cover  with  wet  raw  cotton  or  wet 
newspaper,  then  place  in  a cool  spot.  To  preserve  bouquets,  put  a little  saltpetre 
in  the  water  you  use  for  your  bouquets,  and  the  flowers  will  live  for  a fortnight. 

To  Preserve  Brooms.  Dip  them  for  a minute  or  two  in  a 

kettle  of  boiling  suds  once  a week  and  they  will  last  much  longer,  making  them 
tough  and  pliable.  A carpet  wears  much  longer  swept  with  a broom  cared  for  in 
this  manner. 

To  Clean  Brassware.  Mix  one  ounce  of  oxalic  acid,  six 

ounces  of  rotten  stone,  all  in  powder,  one  ounce  of  sweet  oil,  and  sufficient  water 
to  make  a paste.  Apply  a small  proportion,  and  rub  dry  with  a flannel  or  leather. 
The  liquid  dip  most  generally  used  consists  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids,  but  this  is 
more  corrosive. 

Polish  or  Enamel  for  Shirt  Bosoms  is  made  by  melting  to- 
gether one  ounce  of  white  wax  and  two  ounces  of  spermaceti;  heat  gently  and  turn 
into  a very  shallow  pan;  when  cold  cut  or  break  in  pieces.  When  making  boiled 
starch  the  usual  way,  enough  for  a dozen  bosoms,  add  to  it  a piece  of  the  polish  the 
size  of  a hazel  nut. 

To  Keep  Out  Mosquitoes.  If  a bottle  of  the  oil  of  pennyroyal  is 

left  uncorked  in  a room  at  night,  not  a mosquito,  nor  any  other  blood-sucker,  will 
be  found  there  in  the  morning. 

Destruction  of  Rats.  The  following  recipe  for  the  destruction 

originated  with  Dr.  Ure,  and  is  highly  recommended  as  the  best  known  means  of 
getting  rid  of  these  most  obnoxious  and  destructive  vermin.  Melt  hog’s  lard  in  a 
bottle  plunged  in  water,  heated  to  about  150  degrees  of  Fahrenheit,  introduce  into 
it  half  an  ounce  of  phosphrrus  for  every  pound  of  lard,  then  add  a pint  of  proof 
spirit,  or  whisky,  cork  the  bottle  firmly  after  its  contents  have  been  heated  to  150  de- 
grees, taking  it  at  the  same  time  out  of  the  water,  and  agitate  smartly  until  the  phos- 
phorus becomes  uniformly  diffused,  forming  a milky-looking  liquid.  This  liquid, 
being  cooled,  will  afford  a white  compound  of  phosphorus  and  lard,  from  which  the 
spirit  spontaneously  separates,  and  may  be  poured  off  to  be  used  again  for  the  same 
purpose,  but  not  for  drinking,  for  none  of  it  enters  into  the  combination,  but  it 
merely  serves  to  comminute  the  phosphorus,  and  diffuse  it  in  very  small  particles 
through  the  lard.  This  compound,  on  being  warmed  very  gently,  may  be  poured 
out  into  a mixture  of  wheat  flour  and  sugar,  incorporated  therewith,  and  then 
flavored  with  oil  of  rhodium,  or  not,  at  pleasure.  The  flavor  may  be  varied  with  oil 
of  aniseed,  etc.  This  dough,  being  made  into  pellets,  is  to  be  laid  into  rat  holes. 
By  its  luminousness  in  the  dark,  it  attracts  their  notice,  and,  being  agreeable  to  their 
palates  and  noses,  it  is  readily  eaten,  and  proves  certainly  fatal. 

To  Kill  Cockroaches.  A teacupful  of  well  bruised  plaster  of 

Paris,  mixed  with  double  the  quantity  of  oatmeal,  to  which  a little  sugar  may  be 
added,  although  this  last  named  ingredient  is  not  essential.  Strew  it  on  the  floor, 
or  into  the  chinks  where  they  frequent. 

Earwigs  are  very  destructive  insects,  their  favorite  food  being 

the  petals  of  roses,  pinks,  dahlias,  and  other  flowers.  They  may  be  caught  by  driv- 
ing stakes  into  the  ground,  and  placing  on  each  an  inverted  flower  pot,  for  the  ear- 
wigs will  climb  up  and  take  refuge  under  the  pot,  when  they  may  be  taken  out  and 
killed.  Clean  bowls  of  tobacco  pipes,  placed  in  like  manner  on  the  tops  of  smaller 
sticks,  are  very  good  traps,  or  very  deep  holes  may  be  made. in  the  ground  with  a 
crowbar,  into  which  they  will  fall,  and  may  be  destroyed  by  boiling  water. 

To  Destroy  Ants.  Drop  some  quicklime  on  the  mouth  of  their 

nest,  and  wash  it  in  with  boiling  water,  or  dissolve  some  camphor  in  spirits  of  wine, 
then  mix  with  water,  and  pour  into  their  haunts,  or  tobacco  water,  which  has  been 
found  effectual.  They  are  averse  to  strong  scents.  Camphor,  or  a sponge  saturated 
with  creosote,  will  prevent  their  infesting  a cupboard.  To  prevent  their  climbing 
up  trees,  place  a ring  of  tar  about  the  trunk,  or  a circle  of  rag  moistened  occasion- 
ally with  creosote. 


339 


USEFUL  RECIPES,  ETC. 

To  Prevent  Moths.  In  the  month  of  April  or  May,  beat  your 

fur  garments  well  with  a small  cane  or  elastic  stick,  then  wrap  them  up  in  linen, 
without  pressing  them  too  hard,  and  put  betwixt  the  folds  some  camphor  in  small 
lumps;  then  put  your  furs  in  this  state  in  boxes  well  closed.  When  the  furs  are 
wanted  for  use,  beat  them  well  as  before,  and  expose  them  for  twenty-four  hours  to 
the  air,  which  will  take  away  the  smell  of  the  camphor.  If  the  fur  has  long  hair,  as 
bear  or  fox,  add  to  the  camphor  an  equal  quantity  of  black  pepper  in  powder. 

To  Get  Rid  of  Moths.  1.  Procure  shavings  of  cedar  wood,  and 

inclose  in  muslin  bags,  which  can  be  distributed  freely  among  the  clothes. 

2.  Procure  shavings  of  camphor  wood,  and  inclose  in  bags. 

3.  Sprinkle  pimento  (allspice)  berries  among  the  clothes. 

4.  Sprinkle  the  clothes  with  the  seeds  of  the  musk  plant. 

6.  To  destroy  the  eggs,  when  deposited  in  woolen  cloths,  etc., 

use  a solution  of  acetate  of  potash  in  spirits  of  rosemary,  fifteen  grains  to  the  pint. 

Bed  Bugs.  Spirits  of  naphtha  rubbed  with  a small  painter’s 

brush  into  every  part  of  the  bedstead  is  a certain  way  of  getting  rid  of  bugs.  The 
mattress  and  binding  of  the  bed  should  be  examined,  and  the  same  process  attended 
to,  as  they  generally  harbor  more  in  these  parts  than  in  the  bedstead.  Ten 
cents’  worth  of  naphtha  is  sufficient  for  one  bed. 

Bug  Poison.  Proof  spirit,  one  pint;  camphor,  two  ounces;  oil 

of  turpentine,  four  ounces;  corrosive  sublimate,  one  ounce.  Mix.  A correspondent 
says,  “I  have  been  for  a long  time  troubled  with  bugs,  and  never  could  get  rid  of 
them  by  any  clean  and  expeditious  method,  until  a friend  told  me  to  suspend  a 
small  bag  of  camphor  to  the  bed,  just  in  the  center,  overhead.  I did  so,  and  the 
enemy  was  most  effectually  repulsed,  and  has  not  made  his  appearance  since— not 
even  for  a reconnoissance!”  This  is  a simple  method  of  getting  rid  of  these  pests, 
and  is  worth  a trial  to  see  if  it  be  effectual  in  other  cases. 

Mixture  for  Destroying  Flies.  Infusion  of  quassia,  one  pint; 

brown  sugar,  four  ounces;  ground  pepper,  two  ounces.  To  be  well  mixed  together, 
and  put  in  small,  shallow  dishes  when  required. 

To  Destroy  Flies  in  a room,  take  half  a teaspoonful  of  black 

pepper  in  powder,  one  teaspoonful  of  brown  sugar,  and  one  tablespoonful  of  cream, 
mix  them  well  together,  and  place  them  in  the  room  on  a plate,  where  the  flies  are 
troublesome,  and  they  will  soon  disappear. 

How  to  Destroy  Insects.  The  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  sends  out  the  following,  for  use  as  insecticides  on 
or  about  plants,  etc. : London  purple — To  twenty  pounds  flour  from  one-quarter  to 
one-half  pound  is  added  and  well  mixed.  This  is  applied  with  a sifter  or  blower. 
With  forty  gallons  of  water  one-quarter  to  one-half  pound  is  mixed  for  spraying. 
Paris  Green— With  twenty  pounds  of  flour  from  three-quarters  to  one  pound  is  mixed 
and  applied  by  sifting  or  by  a blower.  The  same  amount  of  the  insecticide  to  forty 
gallons  of  water  is  used  as  a spray.  Bisulphate  of  Carbon— For  use  in  the  ground 
a quantity  is  poured  or  injected  among  the  roots  that  are  being  infected.  Against 
insects  damaging  stored  grain  of  museum  material  a small  quantity  is  used  in  an 
air-tight  vessel.  Carbolic  Acid — A solution  of  one  part  in  loo  of  water  is  used  against 
parasites  on  domestic  animals  and  their  barns  and  sheds;  also  on  the  surface  of 
plants  and  among  the  roots  in  the  ground.  Helebore — The  powder  is  sifted  on  alone 
or  mixed  one  part  to  twenty  of  flour.  With  one  gallon  of  water  one-quarter  pound 
is  mixed  for  spraying.  Kerosene-Milk  Emulsion — To  one  part  milk  add  two  parts 
kerosene,  and  churn  by  force  pump  or  other  agitator.  The  butter-like  emulsion  is 
diluted  ad  libitum  with  water.  An  easier  method  is  to  simply  mix  one  part  kerosene 
with  eight  of  milk.  Scap  Emulsion— In  one  gallon  hot  water  one-half  pound  whale 
oil  soap  is  dissolved.  This,  instead  of  milk,  is  mixed  to  an  emulsion  with  kerosene 
in  the  same  manner  and  proportion  as  above.  Pyrethrum,  Persian  Insect  Powder 
— Is  blown  or  sifted  on  dry,  also  applied  in  water  one  gallon  to  a tablespoonful 
of  the  powder,  well  stirred  and  then  sprayed.  Tobacco  Decoction — This  is  made  as 
strong  as  possible  as  a wash  or  spray  to  kill  insect  pests  on  animals  and  plants. 

340 


300  FACTS  ABOUT  POULTRY. 

Characteristics  of  the  Various  Breeds  Concisely  Stated, 


6 

IZi 

Races. 

Weight  of  Chick,  one 
day  old. 

Daily  Increase  of  the 

Weight  of  Chick 

during  20  days. 

Annual  Laying. 

Weight  of  Eggs. 

Quantity  of  Food 

Daily. 

Average  Weight  of 

Flesh  at  6 months. 

Average  Weight  of 

Bone. 

oz. 

oz. 

E’gs 

oz. 

oz. 

lbs.  oz. 

oz.  dr. 

1 

Crevecoeur 

1 9-16 

5-16 

122 

2 3-4 

7 

4 10 

7 15 

2 

Houdan 

1 3-8 

11-32 

125 

2 3-16 

6 13-16 

3 15 

7 OH 

3 

La  Bresse,  black. . . . 

1 7-16 

1-4 

160 

2 13-16 

6 13-16 

3 8 

5 

4 

La  Bresse,  gray 

1 5-16 

1-4 

150 

1 7-8 

5 1-4 

3 7 

5 1% 

5 

Barbezieux 

1 10-16 

5-16 

140 

2 7-16 

6 10-16 

4 11 

8 m 

6 

La  Fleche 

1 1-2 

7-32 

140 

2 7-16 

6 13-16 

3 6 

6 5K 

7 

Le  Mans 

1 10-16 

5-16 

111 

2 1-4 

6 14-16 

4 5 

7 12 

8 

Gournay 

1 3-16 

3-16 

140 

2 7-16 

4 11-16 

2 10 

4 9 

9 

Courtes  Pattes 

1 1-4 

3-16 

150 

2 3-16 

6 10-16 

3 10 

5 7^ 

10 

Andalusian 

1 5-16 

1-4 

165 

2 7-16 

6 12-16 

3 1 

5 13 

11 

Brahma  

1 5-8 

7-32 

120 

2 1-4 

9 1-2 

4 11 

10  15 

12 

Campine,  silver  span- 

gled... . 

1 1-16 

3-16 

225 

1 11-16 

5 1-2 

2 3 

4 SH 

13 

Cochin,  cinnamon. . . 

1 13-16 

3-16 

115 

2 1-16 

10  1-2 

4 9 

14  4y2 

14 

Game  

1 5-16 

7-32 

100 

2 7-16 

5 1-4 

3 10 

4 6H 

15 

Cosaque 

1 3-16 

1-4 

120 

2 3-16 

4 1-4 

2 15 

4 15 

16 

Dominique 

11-4 

7-32 

110 

2 7-32 

4 3-4 

3 11 

5 6% 

17 

Dorking 

1 7-16 

11-32 

130 

1 15-16 

6 13-16 

5 4 

7 ey 

18 

Spanish 

1 5-16 

7-32 

160 

2 3-4 

6 13-16 

3 1 

9 

19 

Hamburg,  silver 

spangled 

1 2-16 

7-32 

239 

1 11  16 

5 1-4 

2 3^ 

4 6K 

20 

Dutch,  black 

1 1-16 

2-16 

98 

2 

5 1-2 

2 3 

4 9 

21 

Langshan 

1 5-8 

5-16 

115 

2 3-16 

7 

5 4 

10  103^ 

22 

Leghorn,  silver 

% 

spangled 

1 1-4 

1-4 

190 

2 7-32 

6 

3 15 

7 0% 

23 

Polands,  golden 

spangled 

1 3-16 

3-16 

100 

2 1-16 

4 

2 13 

4 12 

24 

Scotch  Grey 

1 1-4 

7-32 

110 

2 7-32 

6 13-16 

3 4H 

4 15 

25 

Bantam,  silver  span- 

gled   

9-16 

80 

1 1-8 

2 7-8 

26 

Game  Bantam 

7-16 

90 

1 1-32 

2 3-4 

27 

Nagasaki 

1-2 

95 

1 3-32 

3 1-8 

28 

Silkies 

3-4 

98 

1 1-4 

3 9-16 

Below  are  given  soil  and  climate  best  adapted  for 
the  various  breeds,  rate  of  development,  quality  of 
flesh,  etc.,  etc.  The  numbers  in  first  column  of 
preceding  table  refer  to  further  description  and  char- 
acteristics of  same  breeds  in  paragraphs  following: 

I I.  Grass  soil,  mild  climate,  fears  fog,  develops  rapidly  and  fattens 

^easily,  does  not  set,  flesh  exquisite  white  and  delicate. 

Calcareous  soil,  any  climate,  very  rapid  development,  incubation  nil,  flesh 
delicate.  341 


FACTS  ABOUT  POULTRT. 

3.  Grass,  hardy  in  all  climates,  fattens  quickly,  good  sitters,  does  not  steal  nest, 
flesh  exquisite. 

4.  Any  climate,  fattens  quickly,  incubation  nil,  flesh  very  good. 

5.  Mild  climate,  dry  soil,  development  slow,  incubation  good,  flesh  delicate. 

6.  Mild  climate,  dry  soil,  development  slow,  fattens  easily,  incubation  nil,  flesh 
very  delicate. 

7.  Dry  soil,  any  climate,  rapid  development,  incubate  rarely,  delicate  flesh. 

8.  Grass  soil,  any  climate,  pretty  rapid  development,  incubate  rarely,  flesh  good. 

9.  Dry  soil,  hardy  in  all  climates,  development  middling,  incubation  good  but 
late,  good  flesh. 

10.  Dry  soil  and  warm  climate,  development  middling,  incubation  nil,  flesh  del- 
icate. 

11.  Hardy,  dry  soil,  any  climate,  development  slow,  incubation  excellent,  good 
mothers,  flesh  fair. 

12.  Hardy  race,  any  climate,  require  much  space,  development  middling,  incu- 
bation nil,  flesh  good. 

13.  Hardy  in  any  climate,  develop  very  slowly,  incubation  excellent,  good 
mothers  but  heavy,  flesh  stringy. 

14.  Hardy  in  any  climate,  development  rapid,  incubation  capital,  good  mothers, 
flesh  excellent. 

15.  Very  hardy  race  in  any  climate,  development  rapid,  incubation  nil,  flesh  deli- 
cate. 

16.  Hardy  in  any  climate,  development  middling,  incubation  very  good,  excel- 
lent mothers,  flesh  good. 

17.  Grass  soil  and  mild  climate,  develop  very  rapidly,  incubate  well,  very  good 
mothers,  flesh  very  delicate  and  juicy. 

18.  Delicate  race,  sandy  soil  and  warm  climate,  develop  slowly,  long  time 
feathering,  incubation  rare,  flesh  delicate. 

19.  Any  soil  or  climate,  development  middling,  incubation  very  rare,  flesh  deli- 
cate. 

20.  Delicate  breed,  require  grass  soil,  development  middling,  incubation  nil, 
flesh  pretty  good. 

21.  Very  hardy  in  any  climate,  develop  rapidly,  incubation  good,  most  excellent 
mothers,  flesh  excellent. 

22.  Very  hardy  in  any  climate,  develop  rapidly,  incubate  very  rarely,  flesh  indif- 
ferent. 

^3.  Delicate  race,  fear  damp,  development  not  very  rapid,  incubation  rare,  flesh 
delicate. 

24.  Delicate  race,  grass  soil,  development  middling,  incubation  nil,  flesh  good. 

25.  Very  delicate  breed,  dry  soil,  development  middling,  incubation  pretty  good. 

26.  Delicate,  dry  soil,  development  middling,  incubation  good — must  not  be  dis- 
turbed. 

27.  Sandy  soil,  development  middling,  incubation  indifferent,  flesh  good. 

28.  Very  hardy  race  in  any  climate,  develop  rapidly,  excellent  incubation,  flesh 
very  bad. 


The  “Poor  Man’s  Region,”  in  the  Pine  Barrens  of  the 

Southern  States,  is  a belt  of  country  more  than  seventeen  hundred  miles  long  and 
often  one  hundred  and  seventy  miles  broad,  stretching  from  Richmond,  Va.,  along 
the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts,  to  beyond  the  western  line  of  Louisiana.  The  soil  is 
sandy  and  the  principal  tree  is  the  long-leaf  pine.  These  forests,  while  affording  a 
valuable  article  of  lumber,  also  yield  pitch,  tar  and  turpentine. 

The  first  proposer  of  secession  in  the  United  States  Congress 
wasjosiah  Quincy,  of  Massachusetts,  in  1811,  who  said  that,  if  Louisiana  were  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union,  “it  will  be  the  right  of  all  and  the  duty  of  some  [of  the  States] 
definitely  to  prepare  for  a separation — amicably  if  they  can,  violently  if  they  must.” 
Mr.  Poindexter,  of  Mississippi,  called  him  to  order  as  did  the  Speaker  of  the  House; 
but  on  appeal  the  Speaker’s  decision  was  reversed,  and  Mr.  Quincy  sustained  by  a 
vote  of  fifty-three  ayes  to  fifty-six  noes,  on  the  point  of  order. 

342 


DUCKS,  GEESE  AND  TURKEYS. 


Breeds. 

Live 

weight 

in 

pounds. 

Live 
weight 
of  Hen 

Age  at 
maturi- 
ty, mos. 

Cost  of 

raising 
to  ma- 
turity. 

Annual 
cost  of 
keepi’g 

Av.  val. 

of  eggs 
laid  per 
year. 

Ducks,  common 

3 

3 

6 

75 

1.00 

90 

Ducks,  Aylesbury 

7 

6 

18 

1.00 

1.00 

80 

’Ducks,  Cayuga 

6 

15 

90 

1.00 

1.00 

Ducks,  Pekin 

6 

5^ 

18 

1.10 

1.00 

75 

Ducks,  Rouen 

24 

1.10 

1.00 

80 

Geese,  common 

8 

7 

12 

1.25 

1.50 

20 

Geese,  African 

20 

18 

24 

1.75 

2.00 

30 

Geese,  Egyptian 

7 

6 

12 

11)0 

1.50 

40 

Geese,  Embden 

18 

15 

30 

I.V5 

2.00 

20 

Geese,  Toulouse 

22 

20 

36 

2.00 

2.00 

40 

Turkeys,  common 

12 

10 

12 

1.20 

1.50 

50 

Turkeys,  black 

15 

12 

18 

1.75 

1.75 

50 

Turkeys,  bronze  

24 

15 

36 

2.00 

2.00 

50 

Turkeys,  buff 

Turkeys,  Narragansetts 

15 

12 

24 

1.75 

1.60 

50 

22 

14 

30 

1.75 

1.75 

50 

The  annual  supply  of  eggs  in  the  United  States  is  estimated  at  over  500,000,- 
000  dozen,  and,  at  the  low  price  of  sixteen  cents  per  dozen,  represents  a value  of 
over  $80,000,000 — double  the  value  of  the  product  of  our  silver  mines. 


Fate  of  the  Apostles. 

The  following  brief  history  of  the  fate  of  the  Apostles  may  be 
new  to  those  whose  reading  has  not  been  evangelical  : 

St.  Matthew  is  supposed  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  or  was 
slain  with  the  sword  at  the  city  of  Ethiopia. 

St.  Mark  was  dragged  through  the  streets  of  Alexandria,  in 
Egypt,  till  he  expired. 

St.  Luke  was  hanged  upon  an  olive  tree  in  Greece. 

St.  John  was  put  into  a caldron  of  boiling  oil  at  Rome  and 
escaped  death.  He  afterward  died  a natural  death  at  Ephesus 
in  Asia. 

St.  James  the  Great  was  beheaded  at  Jerusalem. 

St.  James  the  Less  was  thrown  from  a pinnacle  or  wing  of  the 
temple  and  then  beaten  to  death  with  a fuller’s  club. 

St.  Philip  was  hanged  up  against  a pillar  at  Hieropolis,  a city 
of  Phrygia. 

St.  Bartholomew  was  flayed  alive  by  the  command  of  a bar- 
barous king. 

St.  Andrew  was  bound  to  a cross,  whence  he  preached  unto 
the  people  till  he  expired. 

St.  Thomas  was  run  through  the  body  with  a lance  at  Caro- 
mandel,  in  the  East  Indies. 

St.  Jude  was  shot  to  death  with  arrows. 

St.  Simon  Zealot  was  crucified  in  Persia. 

St.  Matthias  was  first  stoned  and  then  beheaded. 

St.  Barnabas  was  stoned  to  death  by  Jews  at  Salania. 

St.  Paul  was  beheaded  at  Rome  by  the  tyrant  Nero. 

343 


How  to  Tell  the  Age  of  a Horse. 

The  safest  way  of  determining  the  age  of  a horse 
is  by  the  appearance  of  the  teeth,  which  undergo 
certain  changes  in  the  course  of  years. 

Eight  to  fourteen  days  after  birth,  the  first  middle  nippers  of  the 
set  of  milk  teeth  are  cut  (Fig.  i),  four  to  six  weeks  afterwards  the 
pair  next  to  them  (Fig.  2),  and  finally,  after  six  or  eight  months,  the 
last  (Fig.  3). 

All  these  milk  teeth  have  a well  defined  body  and  neck,  and  a slender  fang,  and 
on  their  front  surface  grooves  of  furrows,  which  disappear  from  the  middle  nippers 
at  the  end  of  one  year,  from  the  next 
pair  in  two  years,  and  from  the  in- 
cisive teeth  (cutters)  in  three  years. 

At  the  age  of  two  the  nippers  be- 
come loose  and  fall  out,  in  their 
places  appear  two  permanent 
teeth,  with  deep,  black  cavities,  and 
full,  sharp  edges  (Fig.  4). 

At  the  age  of  three,  the  next  pair 
(Fig.  5)  fall  out. 

At  four  years  old,  the  corner  teeth 
fall  out(Fig.  6). 

At  five  years  old,  the  horse  has 
his  permanent  set  of  teeth. 

The  teeth  grow  in  length  as  the 
horse  advances  in  years,  but  at  the 
same  time  his  teeth  are  worn  away 
by  use  about  one-twelfth  of  an 
inch  every  year,  so  that  the  black 
cavities  of  the  center  nippers  below  disappear  in  the  sixth  year  (Fig  7),  those  of  the 
next  pair  in  the  seventh  year  (Fig.  8),  and  those  of  the  corner  teeth  in  the.  eighth 
year  (Fig.  9).  Also  the  outer  corner  teeth  of  upper  and  lower  jaw  just  meet  at  eight 
years  of  age. 

At  nine  years  old,  cups  leave  the  two  center  nippers  above,  and  each  of  the  two 
upper  corner  teeth  has  a little  sharp  protrusion  at  the  extreme  outer  corner  (Fig.  10). 

At  the  age  of  ten,  the  cups  disappear  from  the  adjoining  teeth. 

At  the  age  of  eleven,  the  cups  disappear  from  the  corner  teeth  above,  and  are 
only  indicated  by  brownish  spots. 

The  oval  form  becomes  broader,  and  changes,  from  the  twelfth  to  the  sixteenth 
year,  more  and  more  into  a triangular  form,  and  the  teeth  lose,  finally,  with  the 
twentieth  year,  all  regularity.  There  is  nothing  remaining  in  the  teeth  that  can'after- 
wards  clearly  show  the  age  of  the  horse,  or  justify  the  most  experienced  examiner  in 
giving  a positive  opinion. 

The  tushes,  or  canine  teeth,  conical  in  shape,  with  a sharp  point,  and  curved,  are 
cut  between  the  third  and  fourth  year,  their  points  become  more  and  more  rounded 
until  the  ninth  year,  and  after  that,  more  and  more  dull  in  the  course  of  years,  and 
lose,  finally,  all  regular  shape.  Mares  have,  frequently,  no  tusks,  or  only  very 
faintly  indicated. 

Age  of  Sheep  and  Goats.  At  one  jear  old  they  have  eight  front 
teeth  of  uniform  size.  At  two  years  the  two  middle  ones  are  supplanted  by  two  large 
ones.  At  three  a small  tooth  appears  on  each  side.  At  four  there  are  six  large 
teeth.  At  five  all  the  front  teeth  are  large,  and  at  six  all  begin  to  get  worn. 

Age  of  Cattle.  A cow’s  horn  is  supposed  to  furnish  a correct 
indication  of  the  age  of  the  animal,  but  this  is  not  always  true.  For  ordinary  pur- 
poses, however,  the  following  will  be  found  approximately  correct:  At  two  years  of 
age  a circle  of  thicker  matter  begins  to  form  on  the  animal’s  horns,  which  becomes 
clearly  defined  at  three  years  of  age,  when  another'circle  begins  to  form,  and  an*ad- 
ditional  circle  every  year  thereafter.  The  cow’s  age  then  can  be  determined  by 
adding  two  to  the  number  of  circles.  The  rings  on  a bull’s  horns  do  not  show  them- 
selves until  he  is  five  years  old — so  in  the  case  of  a bull  five  must  be  added  to  the 
number  of  rings.  Unless  the  rings  are  clear  and  distinct  these  rules  will  not  apply. 
Besides,  dishonest  dealers  sometimes  file  off  some  of  the  rings  of  old  cattle.  [344 


MEDICINES  FOR  THE  HORSE. 


Name  of  Drug. 


Aloes 

Alum 

Anise  Seed 
Aqua  Ammonia 
Arsenic 

Asafoetida 
Bicarbonate  of  \ 
Potash  j 

Bismuth 

Black  Antimony 

Blue  Vitriol 

Calomel 

Camphor 

Cantharides 

Carbolic  Acid 

Castor  Oil 

Cayenne 

Chlorate  of  Potash 
Copperas 
Croton  Oil 
Digitalis  Leaf 
Epsom  Salts 
Ether 

Fowler’s  Solution 
Gentian  Root 
Ginger 

Glauber’s  Salts 
Iodide  of  Potas-  [ 
sium  j 

Linseed  Oil,  Raw 
Magnesia 
Mercurial  Ointm’t 
Nux  Vomica 


Opium 

Prepared  Chalk 
Quinine 

Saltpetre 
Soda  Bicarb. 

Soda  Sulphite 

Solution  of  Lime 
Sp’ts  of  Chlorofor’e 


Action  and  Use. 

Dose. 

Laxative  and  Tonic 

34  to  I oz 

Astringent 

2 to  3 drs 

Aromatic  and  Stomachic 

34  to  2 oz 

Stimulant  and  Antacid 

I to  4 drs 

j Alterative  and  Tonic  For  ) 

j Paralysis,  Mange,  etc  [ 

I to  5 grs 

Anti-spasmodic,  Coughs,  etc 

I to  3 drs 

j Diuretic  and  Antacid.  \ 

1 For  Rheumatism  [ 

3 to  5 drs 

For  Chronic  Diarrhoea,  etc 

34  to  I oz 

Promotes  the  Secretions 

34  to  34  dr 

Astringent  and  Tonic 

34  to  I dr 

Cathartic 

lo  to  40  grs 

Anti-spasmodic 

34  to  I dr 

Diuretic  and  Stimulant 

3 to  6 grs 

Externally  and  Disinfectant 

Cathartic 

3^  to  I pt 

Stimulant  and  Carminative 

5 to  25  grs 

Diuretic.  For  Bloating,  etc 

34  to  2 drs 

I'cnic  and  Astringent 

34  to  134  drs 

Powerful  Purgative 

10  to  15  d’ps 

Sedative  and  Diuretic 

10  to  20  grs 

Cathartic  and  Febrifuge 

2 to  8 oz 

Anti-spasmodic 

34  1 0 2 oz 

Used  for  Skin  Diseases 

I to  4 drs 

Tonic 

I to  2 drs 

f Tonic,  Stimulant  & Stom-  ) 

■<  achic.  For  Flatulent  Col-  V 

2 to  5 drs 

( ic.  Dyspepsia,  etc  j 

6 to  12  ozs 

Cathartic 

1 Diuretic  and  Alterative.  ) 

•<  For  Rheumatism,  Dropsy,  > 

34  to  i34  drs 

( Enlarged  Glands,  etc  ) 

Cathartic  and  Nutritive 

I to  2 pts 

j For  colts  as  an  Antacid  \ 

34  to  I oz 

1 and  Laxative  j 

j For  Mange,  Itch,  Lice,  \ 

1 and  other  Parasites  [ 

j Nervous  Stimulant.  For  ) 

1 Paralysis  j 

15  to  25  grs 

[Anodyne  and  Anti-spas- ^ 

J modic.  Given  in  Colic,  ! 
j Inflamation  of  Bowels,  | 

[ Diarrhoea,  etc  J 

34  to  I dr 

Antacid 

34  to  I oz  • 

Tonic.  During  Convalescence 

15  to  50  grs 

Diuretic  and  Febrifuge 

I to  3 drs 

Similar  to  Bicarb.  Potash 

3 to  8 drs 

f Antiseptic  and  Alterative.  ) 

34  to  1 oz 

(For  Blood  Diseases  J 

(Antacid,  an  antidote  to) 

\ poisoning  by  acids  ) 

4 to  6 ozs 

Anodyne  & Anti-spasmodic 

X to  2 ozs 

Antidote. 


Vinegar 

Magnesia  and  oil 

j Vinegar  and  raw 
I Linseed  Oil 

( Infusion  of  oak 
•<  bark.  Give  also 
( Linseed  Oil 
Eggs,  Milk,  etc 
Eggs  and  Milk 


Eggs,  soap,  gruel 


Opium 

Stimulate 


Hydrated  Pero.x- 
ide  of  Iron 


1 Give  freely  starch 
•<  or  flour,  with 
( water  largely 


j Whites  of  eggs 
I with  milk,  freely 
f Salaratus,  follow- 
! e d quickly  b y 
j copperas,  dissolv- 
[ ed  in  water 
[Belladonna,  str*g 
j coffee,  brandy  & 
■{  ammonia.  Dash 
cold  water  on  and 
[ keep  horse  movi’g 


j Linseed  oil  large- 
( ly,  raw 


345 


MEDICINES  FOR  THE  HORSE. — Continued. 


Name  of  Drug. 

Action  and  Use. 

Dose. 

Strychnia 

Sulphur 

Sweet  Sp’ts  Nitre 
Tannic  Acid 

Tartar  Emetic 

j Tonic  & Stimulant.  For  1 
j Paralysis  j 

r Alterative  and  Laxative.  ( 

( Skin  diseases,  Rheu’tism  j 
Diuretic  and  Diaphoretic. 
Astringent 

Sedative  and  Alterative 

M to  I gr 

to  2 oz 

to  oz 

20  to  40  grs 
^ to  54  dr 

Tin.  Aconite  Root 

Sedative.  For  Lung  Fever, etc 

15  to  35  d’ps 

Tin.  Cantharides 
Tincture  Ergot 
Tincture  Iodine 

Tincture  Iron 

Tr.  Nux  Vomica 

Tincture  Opium 

White  Vitriol 

Stimulant  and  Tonic 
Parturient 

Used  externally 
j Tonic  and  Astringent.  ) 

"j  For  Typhoid  Diseases  f 
j Tonic.  Stimulant  in  Par-  j 

1 alysis  and  Dyspepsia  f 

Anodyne  and  Anti-spasmodic 
j Astringent.  For  Wounds  ) 

\ Cuts  & Sores,  in  solution  j 

I to  2 drs 

1 to  2 oz 

^ to  I oz 

2 to  4 drs 

I to  2 ozs 

5 to  15  grs 

Antidote. 


Tobacco 


Tannic  Acid 
f Small  doses  o f 
! Nux  Vomica, stim- 
I ulants  largely,  & 
[ keep  moving 


See  Nux  Vomica 
See  Opium 
Milk,  eggs  & flour 


For  a colt  one  month  old,  give  one  twenty-fourth  of  the  full  dose  for  an  adult 
horse  as  given  above;  three  months  old,  one-twelfth;  six  months  old,  one-sixth;  one 
year  old,  one-third;  two  years  old,  one-half;  three  years  old,  three-fourths. 

The  Seven  Bibles  of  the  World 

Are  the  Koran  of  the  Mohammedans,  the  Eddas  of  the  Scandi- 
navians, the  Try  Pitikes  of  the  Buddhists,  the  Five  Kings  of  the 
Chinese,  the  Three  Vedas  of  the  Hindoos,  the  Zendavesta,  and 
the  Scriptures  of  the  Christians.  The  Koran  is  the  most  recent 
of  these  seven  Bibles,  and  not  older  than  the  seventh  century  of 
our  era.  It  is  a compound  of  quotations  from  the  Old  and  New^ 
Testaments,  the  Talmud,  and  the  Gospel  of  St.  Barnabas.  The 
Eddas  of  the  Scandinavians  were  first  published  in  the' fourteenth 
century.  The  Pitikes  of  the  Buddhists  contain  sublime  morals 
and  pure  aspirations,  and  their  author  lived  and  died  in  the  sixth 
century  before  Christ.  There  is  nothing  of  excellence  in  these 
sacred  books  not  found  in  the  Bible.  The  sacred  writings  of  the 
Chinese  are  called  the  Five  Kings,  king  meaning  web  of  cloth, 
or  the  warp  that  keeps  the  threads  in  their  place.  They  contain 
the  best  sayings  of  the  best  sages  on  the  ethico-political  duties  of 
life.  These  sayings  cannot  be  traced  to  a period  higher  than  the 
eleventh  century  B.C.  The  Three  Vedas  are  the  most  ancient 
books  of  the  Hindoos,  and  it  is  the  opinion  of  Max  Muller,  Wil- 
son, Johnson,  and  Whitnej^  that  they  are  not  older  than  eleven 
centuries  B.C.  The  Zendavesta  of  the  Persians  is  the  grandest 
of  all  the  sacred  books  next  to  our  Bible.  Zoroaster,  whose  say- 
ings it  contains,  was  born  in  the  twelfth  century  B.C.  Moses 
lived  and  wrote  his  Pentateuch  fifteen  centuries  B.C.,  and, 
therefore,  has  a clear  margin  of  300  years  older  than  the  most 
ancient  of  the  sacred  writings. 

346 


CANARY  RIRRS. 

HOW  TO  KEEP  THEM  HEALTHY  AND  IN  GOOD  SONG. 

Place  the  cage  so  that  no  draught  of  air  can  strike  the  bird. 
Give  nothing  to  healthy  birds  but  rape,  hemp,  canary  seed, 

water,  cuttle-fish  bone,  and  gravel  paper  or  sand  on  floor  of  cage. 

A bath  three  times  a week. 

The  room  should  not  be  overheated. 

When  moulting  keep  warm  and  avoid  all  draughts  of  air. 

Give  plentj^  of  German  summer  rape  seed.  A little  hard 

boiled  egg  mixed  with  cracker,  grated  fine,  once  or  twice  a week,  is  excellent. 

Feed  at  a certain  hour  in  the  morning. 

DISEASES  AND  CURES. 

Husk  or  Asthma.  The  curatives  are  aperients,  such  as  en- 

dive, water  cresses,  bread  and  milk  and  red  pepper. 

Pip.  Mix  red  pepper,  butter  and  garlic  and  swab  out  the 

throat. 

Sweating.  Wash  the  hen  in  salt  and  water,  and  dry  rapidly. 
Costiveness.  Plenty  of  green  food  and  fruit. 

Obstruction  of  the  Rump  Gland.  Pierce  with  a needle. 

Press  the  inflamed  matter  out,  and  drop  fine  sugar  over  the  wound. 

Lice.  Keep  a saucer  of  fresh  water  in  the  cage  and  the  bird 

will  free  itself. 

Overgrown  Claws  or  Beak.  Pare  carefully  with  a sharp 

knife. 

Moulting.  Give  plenty  of  good  food  and  keep  warm.  Saf- 

fron and  a rusty  nail  put  in  their  drinking  water  is  excellent. 

Loss  of  Voice.  Feed  with  paste  of  bread,  lettuce  and  rape 

seed  with  yoke  of  egg.  Whisky  and  sugar  is  an  excellent  remedy. 


What  a Horse  Can  Draw. 

On  metal  rails  a horse  can  draw:- 

One  and  two-thirds  times  as  much  as  on  asphalt  pavement. 

Three  and  one-third  times  as  much  as  on  good  Belgian  blocks. 

Five  times  as  much  as  on  ordinary  Belgian  blocks. 

Seven  times  as  much  as  on  good  cobble-stone. 

Thirteen  times  as  much  as  on  ordinary  cobble-stone. 

Twenty  times  as  much  as  on  an  earth  road. 

Forty  times  as  much  as  on  sand. 

A modern  compilation  of  engineering  maxims  states  that  a horse  can  drag,  as 
compared  with  what  he  can  carry  on  his  back,  in  the  following  proportions:  On 
the  worst  earthen  road,  three  times  more;  on  a good  macadamized  road,  nine;  on 
plank,  twenty-five;  on  a stone  trackway,  thirty-three;  and  on  a good  railway,  fifty- 
four  times  as  much. 


Value  of  Foreign  Money. 

Pound  sterling  of  England,  $4.84:  guinea,  $5.05;  crown,  $1.21; 
shilling,  24  cents;  Napoleon  of  France,  $3.84;  five-franc,  96 
cents;  franc,  i8j4  cents;  thaler  of  Saxony,  68  cents;  guilder  of 
Netherlands,  40  cents;  ducat  of  Austria,  $2.28;  florin  of  Austria, 
483^  cents;  doubloon  of  Spain  (1800),  $15.54;  real  of  Spain,  5 
cents;  five  roubles  of  Russia,  $3.95;  rouble,  75  cents;  franc  of 
Belgium,  183^  cents;  ducat  of  Bavaria,  $2.27;  franc  of  Switzer- 
land, 18^  cents;  crown  of  Tuscany,  $1,053^. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


Troy  Weight — 24  grains  make  i pennyweight,  20  penny- 
weights make  i ounce.  By  this  weight,  gold,  silver  and  jewels  only  are  weighed. 
The  ounce  and  pound  in  this  are  same  as  in  Apothecaries’  weight. 

Apothecaries’  Weight — 20  grains  make  one  scruple,  3 

scruples  make  i dram,  8 drams  make  i ounce,  12  ounces  make  i pound. 

Avoirdupois  Weight — 6 drams  make  i ounce,  16  ounces 

make  one  pound,  25  pounds  make  i quarter,  4 quarters  make  i hundredweight, 
2,000  pounds  make  i ton. 

Dry  Measure — 2 pints  make  i quart,  8 quarts  make  i peck, 

4 pecks  make  i bushel,  36  bushels  make  i chaldron. 

LiqyiD  OR  Wine  Measure — 4 gills  make  i pint,  2 pints 
make  1 quart,  4 quarts  make  i gallon,  31 gallons  make  i barrel,  2 barrels  make  1 
hogshead. 

Time  Measure — 60  seconds  make  i minute,  60  minutes  make 

1 hour,  24  hours  make  i day,  7 days  make  i week,  4 weeks  make  i lunar  month,  28, 
29,  30  or  31  days  make  i calendar  month  (30  days  make  i month  in  computing 
interest),  52  weeks  and  i day,  or  12  calendar  months,  make  i year;  365  days,  5 hours, 
48  minutes  and  49  seconds  make  i solar  year. 

Circular  Measure — 60  seconds  make  i minute,  60  minutes 
make  i degree,  30  degrees  make  i sign,  90  degrees  make  1 quadrant,  4 quadrants  or 
360  degrees  make  i circle. 

Long  Measure — Distance — ^3  barleycorns  i inch,  12  inches 

I foot,  3 feet  i yard,  5^  yards  i rod,  40  rods  i furlong,  8 furlongs  i mile. 

Cloth  Measure — 2}/^  inches  i nail,  4 nails  i quarter,  4 

quarters  i yard. 

Miscellaneous — 3 inches  one  palm,  4 inches  i hand,  6 

inches  i span,  i8  inches  i cubit,  21.8  inches  1 Bible  cubit,  2^4  feet  i military  pace. 
Square  Measure — 144  square  inches  i square  foot,  9 square 

feet  1 square  yard,  30^^  square  yards  i square  rod,  40  square  rods  i rood,  4 roods  i 
acre. 

Surveyors’  Measure — 7.92  inches  i link,  25  links  i rod,  4 

rods  I chain,  lo  square  chains  or  160  square  rods  i acre,  640  acres  i square  mile. 

Cubic  Measure — 1,728  cubic  inches  i cubic  foot,  27  cubic  feet 

I cubic  yard,  128  cubic  feet  i cord  (wood),  40  cubic  feet  i ton  {shipping^  2,150.42 
cubic  inches  I standard  bushel,  268.8  cubic  inches  i standard  gallon,  i cubic  foot 
four-fifths  of  a bushel. 

Metric  Weights — lo  milligrams  i centigram,  10  centigrams 

I decigram,  10  decigrams  1 gram,  10  grams  i dekagram,  10  dekagrams  i hekto- 
gram,  10  hektograms  i kilogram. 

Metric  Measures — (One  milliliter — Cubic  centimeter.) — 

10  milliliters  i centiliter,  10  centiliters  i deciliter,  10  deciliters  i liter,  10  liters  i 
dekaliter,  10  dekaliters  i hektoliter,  10  hektoliters  i kiloliter. 

Metric  Lengths — lo  millimeters  i centimeter,  10  centi- 
meters I decimeter,  10  decimeters  i meter,  10  meters  i dekameter,  10  dekameters  i 
hektometer,  10  hektometers  1 kilometer. 

Relative  Value  of  Apotliecaries’  and  Imperial 
Measure* 

Apothecaries.  Imperial. 

I gallon  equals 6 pints,  13  ounces,  2 drams,  23  minims. 

I pint  " 16  “ 5 “ 18  “ 

I fluid  ounce  equals i “ o “ 20  “ 

1 fluid  dram  “ i “ 2^4  '* 


348 


Handy  Metric  'Tablett* 


The  following  tables  give  the  equivalents  of  both  the  metric 

ind  common  systems,  and  will  be  found  convenient  for  reference: 

Approximate  Accurate 

Equivalent.  Equivalent. 

1 inch [length], . . . 2]^  cubic  centimeters 2.539 

1 centimeter 0.4  inch 0.393 

1 yard 1 meter 0.914 

1 meter  (39.37  inches) 1 yard 1.093 

1 foot 30  centimeters 30.479 

1 kilometer  (1,000  meters) % mile 0.621 

1 mile VA  kilometers 1.600 

1 gramme [weight] 15]^  grains 15.432 

1 grain 0.064  gramme. 0.064 

1 kilogramme  (1,000  grammes) 2.2  pounds  avoirdupois 2.204 

1 pound  avoirdupois.. A kilogramme 0.453 

1 ounce  avoirdupois  (437^  grains) 28V^  grammes 28.349 

1 ounce  troy,  or  apothecary  (480  grains).. .31  grammes 31.103 

1 cubic  centimeter  [bulk]..,.  1.06  cubic  inch 0.060 

1 cubic  inch 16^  cubic  centimeters 16.386 

1 liter  (1,000  cubic  centimeters) 1 United  States  standard  quart...  0.946 

1 United  States  quart 1 liter 1.057 

1 fluid  ounce 2934  cubic  centimeters 29.570 

1 hectare  (10,000  square  meters)  [surface].  234  ^cres 2.471 

1 acre 0.4  hectare 0.40 


It  may  not  be  generally  known  that  we  have  in  the  nickel  five-cent  piece  of  our 
coinage  a key  to  the  tables  of  linear  measures  and  weights.  The  diameter  of  this 
coin  is  two  centimeters,  and  its  weight  is  five  grammes.  Five  of  them  placed  in  a 
row  will,  of  course,  give  the  length  of  the  decimeter;  and  two  ot  them  will  weigh  a 
decagram.  As  the  kiloliter  is  a cubic  meter,  the  key  to  the  measure  of  length 
is  also  the  key  to  the  measures  of  capacity.  Any  person,  therefore,  who  is  fortunate 
enough  to  own  a five-cent  nickle,  may  carry  in  his  pocket  the  entire  metric  system 
of  weights  and  measures. 


Haiiily  Weig^lits  and  Measures* 

One  quart  of  wheat  flour  is  one  pound.  One  quart  of  corn 

meal  weighs  eighteen  ounces.  One  quart  of  butter,  soft,  weighs  fourteen  to  sixteen 
ounces.  One  quart  of  brown  sugar  weighs  from  a pound  to  a pound  and  a quarter, 
according  to  dampness.  One  quart  of  white  sugar  weighs  2 pounds.  Ten  medium- 
sized eggs  weigh  one  pound.  A tablespoonful  of  salt  is  one  ounce.  Eight  table- 
spoonfuls make  a gill.  Two  gills  or  sixteen  tablespoonfuls,  are  half  a pint.  Sixty 
drops  are  one  teaspoonful.  Four  tablespoonfuls  are  one  wineglassful.  Twelve 
tablespoonfuls  are  one  teacupful.  Sixteen  tablespoonfuls,  or  half  a pint,  are  one 
tumblerful. 

The  Meaning  of  Measures — A square  mile  is  equal  to  640 

acres,  A square  acre  is  2O8.71  feet  on  one  side.  An  acre  is  43,560  square  feet.  A 
league,  3 miles,  A span,  10%  inches,  A hand,  4 inches.  A palm,  3 inches.  A 
great  cubit,  ii  inches.  A fathom,  6 feet.  A mile,  5,280  feet. 

Domestic  and  Drop  Measures  Approximated — A tea- 
spoonful, one  fluid  dram  4 grams;  a dessertspoonful,  two  fluid  drams  3 grams; 
a tablespoonful,  half  fluid  ounce  16  grams;  a wineglassful,  two  fluid  ounces  64 
grams;  a tumblerful,  half  pint  256  grams. 


The  original  Mrs.  Partington  was  a respectable  old  lady  who 

lived  at  Sidmquth,  in  Devonshire,  England.  Her  cottage  was  on  the  beach,  and 
during  a terrific  storm  (November,  1824)  the  sea  rose  to  such  a height  as  every  now 
and  then  to  invade  the  old  lady’s  residence.  The  old  lady  persistently  mopped  out 
the  water  with  such  help  as  she  could  command,  until  finally  she  was  compelled  to 
retreat  to  an  upper  story. 


349 


PRACTICAL  CALCULATIONS. 


Short  Cuts  in  Arithmetic — Handy  Tables  for  Ready  Reckoning. 

To  Ascertain  the  Weight  of  Cattle — Measure  the  girt 

close  behind  the  shoulder,  and  the  length  from  the  fore  part  of  the  shoulder-blade 
along  the  back  to  the  bone  at  the  tail,  which  is  in  a vertical  line  with  the  buttock, 
both  in  feet.  Multiply  the  square  of  the  girt,  expressed  in  feet,  by  ten  times  the 
length,  and  divide  the  product  by  three;  the  quotient  is  the  weight,  nearly,  of  the 
fore  quarters,  in  pounds  avoirdupois.  It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  in  very  fat 
cattle  the  fore  quarters  will  be  about  one-twentieth  more,  while  in  those  in  a very 
lean  state  they  will  be  one-twentieth  less  than  the  weight  obtained  by  the  rule. 

Rules  for  Measuring  Corn  in  Crib,  Vegetables,  etc., 

AND  Hay  in  Mow — This  rule  will  apply  to  a crib  of  any  size  or  kind.  Two  cubic 
feet  of  good,  sound,  dry  corn  in  the  ear  will  make  a bushel  of  shelled  corn.  To  get, 
then,  the  quantity  of  shelled  corn  in  a crib  of  corn  in  the  ear,  measure  the  length, 
breadth  and  height  of  the  crib,  inside  the  rail;  multiply  the  length  by  the  breadth 
and  the  product  by  the  height,  then  divide  the  product  by  two,  and  you  have  the 
number  of  bushels  of  shelled  corn  in  the  crib. 

To  find  the  number  of  bushels  of  apples,  potatoes,  etc.,  in  a bin,  multiply  the 
length,  breadth  and  thickness  together,  and  this  product  by  eight,  and  point  off  one 
figure  in  the  product  for  decimals. 

To  find  the  amount  of  hay  in  a mow,  allow  512  cubic  feet  for  a ton,  and  it  will 
come  out  very  generally  correct. 

To  Measure  Bulk  Wood — To  measure  a pile  of  wood, 

multiply  the  length  by  the  width,  and  that  product  by  the  height,  which  will  give 
the  number  of  cubic  feet.  Divide  that  product  by  128,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the 
number  of  cords.  A standard  cord  of  wood,  it  must  be  remembered,  is  four  feet 
thick;  that  is,  the  wood  must  be  four  feet  long.  Farmers  usually  go  by  surface 
measure,  calling  a pile  of  stove  wood  eight  feet  long  and  four  feet  high  a cord.  Un- 
der such  circumstances  thirty-two  feet  would  be  the  divisor. 

How,  TO  Measure  a Tree — Very  many  persons,  when 

looking  for  a stick  of  timber,  are  at  a loss  to  estimate  either  the  height  of  the  tree  or 
the  length  of  timber  it  will  cut.  The  following  rule  will  enable  any  one  to  approxi- 
mate nearly  to  the  length  from  the  ground  to  any  position  desired  on  the  tree:  Take 
a stake,  say  six  feet  in  length,  and  place  it  against  the  tree  you  wish  to  measure. 
Then  step  back  some  rods,  twenty  or  more  if  you  can,  from  vl^hich  to  do  the  meas- 
uring. At  this  point  a light  pole  and  a measuring  rule  are  required.  The  pole  is 
raised  between  the  eyes  and  the  tree,  and  the  rule  is  brought  into  position  against 
the  pole.  Then  by  sighting  and  observing  what  length  of  the  rule  is  required  to 
cover  the  stake  at  the  tree,  and  what  the  entire  tree,  dividing  the  latter  length  by 
the  former  and  multiplying  by  the  number  of  feet  the  stake  is  long,  you  reach  the 
approximate  height  of  the  tree.  For  example,  if  the  stake  at  the  tree  be  six  feet 
above  ground  and  one  inch  on  your  rule  corresponds  exactly  with  this,  and  if  then 
the  entire  height  of  the  tree  corresponds  exactly  with  say  nine  inches  on  the  rule, 
this  would  show  the  tree  to  possess  a full  height  of  fifty-four  feet.  In  practice  it 
will  thus  be  found  an  easy  matter  to  learn  the  approximate  height  of  any  tree, 
building,  or  other  such  object. 

To  Measure  Casks  or  Barrels — Find  mean  diameter  by 

adding  to  head  diameter  two-thirds  (if  staves  are  but  slightly  curved,  three-fifths)  of 
difference  between  head  and  bung  diameters,  and  dividing  by  two.  Multiply  square 
of  mean  diameter  in  inches  by  .7854,  and  the  product  by  the  height  of  the  cask  in 
inches.  The  result  will  be  the  number  of  cubic  inches.  Divide  by  231  for  standard 
or  wine  gallons,  and  by  282  for  beer  gallons. 

Grain  Measure — To  find  the  capacity  of  a bin  or  wagon- 

bed,  multiply  the  cubic  feet  by  .8  (tenths).  For  great  accuracy,  add  % of  a bushel 
for  every  100  cubic  feet.  To  find  the  cubic  feet,  multiply  the  length,  width  and 
depth  together. 

Cistern  Measure — To  find  the  capacity  of  a round  cistern 

or  tank,  multiply  the  square  of  the  average  diameter  by  the  depth,  and  take  3-16  of 

3fi0 


PRACTICAL  CALCULATIONS. 


the  product.  For  ereat  accuracy,  multiply  by  .1865.  For  square  cisterns 
or  tanks,  ir  ultiply  tiie  cubic  feet  by  .2%.  The  result  is  the  contents  in  barrels. 
Land  Measure — To  find  the  number  of  acres  in  a body  of 

land,  multiply  the  length  by  the  width  (in  rods),  and  divide  the  product  by  160. 
When  the  opposite  sides  are  unequal,  add  them,  and  take  half  the  snm  for  the  mean 
length  or  width. 

Measures  of  Capacity — The  following  table,  showing  con- 

tents of  boxes,  will  often  be  found  convenient,  taking  inside  dimensions  : 

24  in.  X 24  in.  x 14.7  will  contain  a barrel  of  31J4  gallons. 

15  in.  x 14  in.  x ii  in.  will  contain  10  gallons. 

85^  in.  x 7 in.  X 4 in.  will  contain  a gallon. 

4 in.  X 4 in.  X3.6  in.  will  contain  a quart. 

24  in.  X 28  in.  x 16  in.  will  contain  5 bushels. 

16  in.  X 12  in.  x 11.2  in.  will  contain  a bushel. 

12  in.  X 1 1. 2 in.  X 8 in.  will  contain  a half  bushel. 

7 in.  X 6.4  in.  X 12  in.  will  contain  a peck. 

8.4  in.  X 8 in.  X 4 in.  will  contain  a half  peck,  or  4 dry  quarts. 

6 in.  X 5 3-5  in.,  and  4 in.  deep,  will  contain  a half  gallon. 

4 in.  X 4 in.,  and  2 i-io  in.  deep,  will  contain  a pint. 

Food  for  Stock. 

One  hundred  pounds  of  good  hay  for  stock  are  equal  to:  Beets, 

white  silesia,  669;  turnips,  469;  rye  straw,  429;  clover,  red,  green,  373;  carrots,  371; 
mangolds,  368^;  potatoes,  kept  in  pit,  350;  oat  straw,  317;  potatoes,  360;  carrot 
leaves  (tops),  135;  nay,  English,  100;  Lucerne,  89;  clover,  red,  dry,  88;  buckwheat, 
78%;  corn,  62^;  oats,  59;  barley,  58;  rye,  53)^;  wheat,  44)/^;  oil-cake,  linseed,  43; 
peas,  dry,  37 beans,  28. 


Number  of  Shrubs,  Plants  or  Trees  in  an  Acre. 


Distances 

apart. 

No.  of 
Plants. 

Distances 

apart. 

No.  of 
Plants. 

Distances 

apart. 

No.  of 
Plants. 

1 

by  1 

43,560 

5 

by 

2 

4,356 

15 

by 

15 

193 

U4 

“ iy2 

19,360 

5 

3 

2,904 

16 

16 

170 

2 

“ 1 

21,780 

5 

4 

2,178 

17 

“ 

17 

150 

2 

“ 2 

10,890  , 

5 

« 

5 

1,742 

18 

“ 

18 

134 

2H 

“ 25^ 

6,969 

6V4  “ 

5^ 

1,417 

19 

“ 

19 

120 

3 

“ 1 

14,520 

6 

“ 

6 

1,210 

20 

** 

20 

108 

3 

“ 2 

7,260 

6^“ 

1,031 

24 

24 

75 

3 

“ 3 

4,840 

7 

7 

888 

25 

“ 

25 

69 

3^ 

3,555 

8 

“ 

8 

680 

27 

27 

59 

4 

“ 1 

10,890 

9 

9 

537 

30 

30 

48 

4 

‘‘  2 

5,445 

10 

(« 

10 

435 

40 

40 

27 

4 

“ 3 

3,630 

11 

it 

11 

360 

50 

50 

17 

4 

“ 4 

2,722 

12 

“ 

12 

302 

60 

“ 

60 

12 

4M 

“ 4^ 

2,151 

13 

• ( 

13 

257 

66 

(( 

66 

10 

5 

“ 1 

8,712 

14 

14 

222 

The  city  of  Ghent,  Belgium,  stands  on  twenty-six  islands,  con- 
nected with  each  other  by  eighty  bridges.  The  city  of  Venice  is  built  on  eighty 
islands,  connected  by  nearly  400  bridges.  In  Venice  canals  serve  for  streets  and 
gondolas  for  carriages. 

Bricks  and  common  pottery  ware  owe  their  red  color  to  the 

iron  naturally  contained  in  the  clay  of  which  they  are  formed,  the  iron,  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  heat,  being  converted  into  red  oxide  of  iron.  Some  varieties  of  clay,  like 
that  found  near  Milwaukee,  contain  little  or  no  iron,  and  bricks  made  from  such  clay 
are  consequently  of  a light  yellow  color. 

351 


Quantity  of  Seeds  Required  for  Planting’. 


Asparagus * . . 

Beet 

Carrot 

Cabbage * [ 

Cauliflower j 


Celery 

Egg  plant, 
Endive.. . . 
Lettuce — 

Okra 

Onion 

Parsnip.. . . 

Radish 

-Salsify 

Spinach  . . . 
Tomato. . . 
Turnip 


Seeds,  per  ounce. 

Length  of 
Drill,  per  oz. 

Vitality. 

Years. 

1,000  to  1,200 

50  feet 

4 

to  6 

1,200  to  1,500 

100  “ 

6 

“ 8 

20,000  to  24,000 

200  “ 

1 

“ 3 

8,000  to  12,000 

Transplant 

4 

“ 6 

50,000  to  60,000 

Transplant 

3 

“ 5 

5,000  to  6,000 

Transplant 

5 

“ 6 

20,000  to  24,000 

Transplant 

8 

“ 10 

25.000  to  30,000 

400  feet 

5 

“ 6 

500  to  600 

50  “ 

5 

“ 6 

7,000  to  8,000 

200  “ 

1 

“ 2 

5.000  to  6,000 

200  “ 

1 

“ 2 

3,000  to  4,000 

100  “ 

4 

“ 5 

2,500  to  3,000 

100  “ 

4 

“ 5 

2,000  to  3,000 

100  “ 

4 

“ 5 

About  20,000 

Transplant 

4 

“ 5 

8,000  to  12,0i() 

200  feet 

6 

“ 7 

M umber  of  Pounds  to  tlie  Busliel,  Lieg^al  Weight,  in  the 
Different  States* 


States. 

1 Wheat. 

d 

pm  * 

1 Oats. 

1 Barley. 

CIS 

V 

; 

1': 

Shelled 

1 Corn 

1 Corn  on 

1 the  Cob. 

j Corn  Meal, 

j Potatoes. 

1 Sweet 

1 Potatoes. 

j Onions. 

j Beans. 

j Peas. 

Dried 

Apples. 

Anthracite 

1 Coal.  || 

Arkansas 

60 

56 

32 

48 

52 

70 

50 

60 

50 

57 

60 

46 

24 

80 

65 

39 

50 

40 

52 

60 

56  32 

48 

48 

56 

50 

60 

50 

60 

60 

Georgia 

60 

5632 

47 

52 

56 

70 

48 

60 

55 

57 

60 

60 

24 

80 

Illinois 

60 

56i32 

48 

52 

56 

70 

48 

60 

55 

57 

60 

24 

80 

Indiana 

60 

56 

48 

50 

56 

68 

50 

60 

48 

60 

25 

Iowa  

60 

5632 

48 

52 

56 

70 

60 

*46* 

57 

60 

24 

‘80' 

Kansas 

60 

56  32 

48 

50 

56 

70 

*50* 

60 

50 

57 

60 

24 

80 

Kentucky. 

1,0 

56132 

47 

55 

55 

70 

50 

60 

55 

57 

60 

*60’ 

24 

76 

]V1  1 p 

60  50  30 

48 

48 

' 56 

50 

60 

52 

64 

60 

Massachusetts 

60  56 

.39  U8 

48 

56 

50 

60 

56 

52 

Michigan 

60 '56 

32 

48 

48 

56 

‘70* 

50 

60 

56 

54 

60 

60 

22 

60 

56 

32 

48 

42 

56 

60 

28 

Minnesota 

60 

56 

32 

48 

52 

56 

60 

57 

60 

24 

New  Hampshire.. 

60 

56 

32 

56 

50 

60 

60 

60 

60 

56 

30 

48 

50 

56 

60 

54 

57 

60 

60 

25 

N ew  J ersey 

New  York 

60 

56 

32 

48 

48 

56 

60 

62 

60 

North  Carolina... 
f^bin 

60 

56 

0 

48 

50 

54 

46 

50 

60 

56 

33 

48 

50 

56 

’70’ 

60 

50 

50 

60 

60 

22 



60 

56 

32 

47 

48 

56 

56 

Pennsylvania 

56 

32 

1 48 

56 

*50 

60 

50 

Knode  isianu 

South  Carolina, . . . 

60 

56 

33 

;48 

56 

‘7(V 

50 

60 

‘50’ 

57 

60 

60 

26 

Tennessee 

56 

32 

148 

50 

' 56 

72 

50 

60 

50 

56 

60 

60 

26 

60 

156 

32 

148 

46 

1 52 

60 

56 

60 

60 

V 6rmont*  ••••••••* 

yirginia  

60|56 

'32 

14§ 

.52 

1 56 

70 

50 

60 

56 

57 

60 

60 

*28' 

*80 

Wisconsin 

60  56 

'32 

!48 

15(J 

1 56 

70 

60 

50 

60 

28 

Ants  never  sleep.  Emerson  mentions  this  as  “a  recently  ob* 

served  fact.” 


352 


Barbed  Wire  Required  for  Fences* 

Estimated  number  of  pounds  of  barbed  wire  required  to  fence 
space  or  distances  mentioned,  with  one,  two  or  three  lines  of 
wire,  based  upon  each  pound  of  wire  measuring  one  rod 


feet). 

I Line.  2 Lines.  3 Lines. 

I square  acre 101/^  152  Ifes. 

I side  of  a square  acre 12%  253^  lbs.  38  It>s. 

I square  half-acre 36  lbs.  72  lbs.  108  lbs. 

1 square  mile 1280  lbs.  2560  lbs.  3840  lbs. 

I side  of  a square  mile  320  lbs.  640  lbs.  960  lbs. 

T rod  in  length 1 lb.  2 lbs.  3 lbs. 

100  rods  in  length 100  lbs.  200  lbs.  300  lbs. 

100  feet  in  length 6 1-16  lbs.  12%  lbs.  18  3-16  lbs.  • 


To  Measure  Corn  or  Similar  Commodity  on  a Floor 
— Pile  up  the  commodity  in  the  form  of  a cone;  find  the  diameter 
in  feet;  multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  .7854,  and  the 
product  by  one-third  the  height  of  the  cone  in  feet;  from  this  last 
product  deduct  one-fifth  of  itself,  or  multiply  it  by  .803564,  and 
the  result  will  be  the  number  of  bushels. 

Contents  of  Fields  and  Lots — An  acre  is  43,560  square 
feet.  The  following  table  will  assist  farmers  in  making  an  ac- 
curate estimate  of  the  amount  of  land  in  different  fields  under 
cultivation: 


10  rods 

X 16  rods 

1 

A. 

100  ft. 

X 10St% 

ft.=% 

8 

(( 

X 20  “ 

1 

ii 

25  “ 

X 100 

“ = .0574 

5 

u 

X 32  “ 

==  1 

a 

25  “ 

X 110 

“ = .0631 

4 

a 

X 40  “ 

= 1 

a 

25  “ 

X 120 

“ = .0688 

5 

yards 

X 968  “ 

3=3  1 

ii 

25  “ 

X 125 

“ = .0717 

10 

u 

X 484  yds 

=:  1 

ii 

25  “ 

X 150 

“ = .109 

20 

u 

X 242  “ 

1 

a 

2178  square  feet 

= .05 

40 

(( 

X 121  “ 

= 1 

a 

4356 

44  44 

= .10 

80 

u 

X 60)4  “ 

= 1 

a 

6534 

44  44 

— .15 

70 

(( 

X 69X  “ 

= 1 

a 

8712 

4*  4» 

= .20 

220  feet 

X 198  feet 

= 1 

a 

10890 

44  44 

= .25 

440 

ii 

X 99  “ 

= 1 

a 

13068 

44  4 4 

= .30 

110 

u 

X 369  “ 

1 

a 

15246 

44  44 

= .35 

60 

if, 

X 726  “ 

= 1 

a 

17424 

44  44 

= .40 

120 

ii 

X 363  “ 

= 1 

ii 

19603 

44  44 

. = .45 

240 

ii 

X 181}^  ft. 

= 1 

a 

21780 

44  44 

= .50 

200 

ii 

X 108/j  “ 

= % 

a 

32670 

44  44 

= .75 

100 

ii 

X 145A  “ 

= % 

a 

34848 

44  44 

= .80 

There  is  a lake  of  pitch  in  the  island  of  Trinidad,  about  a mile 

and  a half  in  circumference.  While  the  asphaltum  near  the  shores  is  sufficiently 
hard  at  most  seasons  to  sustain  men  and  quadrupeds,  it  grows  soft  and  warm  toward 
the  center,  and  there  it  is  in  a boiling  state. 

353 


ORA]>£  PER  MIEE,  TIMBER,  ETC. 

Grade  per  Mile— The  following  table  will  show  the  grade 
per  mile  as  thus  indicated: 

An  inclination  of — 


1 foot  in  15  is  352  feet  per  mile 
1 “ 20  is  264  “ “ 

1 “ 25  is  211  “ “ 

1 30  is  176  “ “ 

1 “ 35  is  151  “ “ 


1 foot  in  40  is  132  feet  per  mile 
1 “ 50  is  106  “ 

1 “ 100  is  53  “ “ 

1 “ 125  is  42  “ 


To  Find  the  Quantity  of  Lumber  in 
A Log — Multiply  the  diameter  in  inches  at 
the  small  end  by  one-half  the  number  of 
inches,  and  this  product  by  the  length  of  the 
log  in  feet,  which  last  product  divide  by  12. 

Example.  How  many  feet  of  lumber  can 
be  made  from  a log  30  inches  in  diameter  and 
14  feet  long? 

30  X 35  450  X 14  = 6300  --  12  525 

feet.  Ans. 

To  Tell  the  Soundness  of  Timber — Apply  the  ear  to 
the  middle  of  one  of  the  ends,  while  another  party  strikes  the 
other  end.  The  blow  will  be  clearlj^  and  distinctly  heard,  how.- 
ever  long  the  beam  may  be,  if  the  wood  is  sound  and  of  good 
quality,  but  if  decay  has  set  in,  the  sound  will  be  muffled  and  in- 
distinct. The  toughest  part  of  a tree  will  always  be  found  on 
the  side  next  the  north. 

The  Number  of  Cubic  Feet  in  a Round  Log  of  Uni- 
form Diameter — Square  the  diameter,  in  inches,  multiply  by  .7854,  and  multiply 
this  product  by  the  length  in  feet,  divide  by  144,  and  the  quotient  is  the  number 
of  cubic  feet. 

Number  of  Cubic  Feet  in  the  Trunk  of  a Standing 

Tree — Find  the  circumference  in  inches,  divide  by  3.1416,  square  the  quotient, 
multiply  by  the  length  in  feet,  divide  by  144,  deduct  about  one-tenth  tor  thickness  of 
bark,  and  the  result  will  be,  approximately,  the  number  of  cubic  feet. 


Following  are  some  curious  facts  about  fishes.  While  natural- 
ists have  generally  accepted  Cuvier’s  view  that  the  existence  of  fishes  is  silent, 
emotionless  and  joyless,  recent  observations  tend  to  show  that  many  fishes  emit 
vocal  sounds.  The  anabas  scandens,  the  climbing  perch  of  India,  quits  the  water 
and  wanders  over  banks  for  considerable  distances,  and  is  even  said  to  climb  trees 
and  bushes.  At  Tranquebar,  Hindoostan,  may  be  seen  the  strange  spectacle  of  fish 
and  shell-fish  dwelling  high  on  lofty  trees.  The  perch  there  climos  up  tall  fan-palms 
in  pursuit  of  certain  shell-fish  which  form  his  favorite  food.  Covered  with  viscid 
slime,  he  glides  smoothly  over  the  rough  bark.  Spines,  which  he  may  sheathe  and 
unfold  at  will,  serve  him  like  hands  to  hang  by,  and  with  the  aid  of  side  fins  and  a 
powerful  tail  he  pushes  himself  upward.  One  species  of  fish,  the  sticklebacks,  are 
known  to  build  nests.  There  are  several  varieties  of  this  fish,  all  natives  of  fresh 
water  with  one  or  two  exceptions.  They  are  found  in  the  Ottawa  River.  The 
^prinodon  is  a sightless  fish  which  gropes  in  the  dreary  waters  of  the  Mammoth 
C5ave  of  Kentucky. 

Abraham’s  purchase  of  the  cave  of  Machpelah  is  the  first  re- 
corded commercial  transaction. 

354 


BOARD  AND  PLANK  MEASUREMENT  AT  SIGHT. 

This  table  gives  the  square  feet  and  inches  in  boards  or  planks  from  3 to  25  inches  wide,  and  4 to 
20  feet  long.  If  a board  be  longer  than  20  feet,  or  wider  than  25  inches,  unite  two  of  the  numbers. 


d 

|OQO«^OQO'<!t<000''i<OQO'<i4C)QOH*<OOO^OQOH*<OQO 

00000000000000000000000 

•a 

UOCOCOOTHCOiOCOQOOT-'COldcOQQO-HCOiOCOOOod 

1 r-H  rH  — t rH —1  rH  (M  C<J  (M  (M  (M  oq  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO  CO 

a 

_c 

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OOrHOOOOrHOOOOOOrHOOOOrHOC-O 

Gi 

d 

'<dcdt^05THc<iH^io't^05dc<icdiocDooo— ‘coH^cocc05 
''•’r-ir2;H_:irHX<cMoq(MC'4(7q<Mcococococococo 

d 

_c 

OOCOOCOOCOOCOOCOOCOOCOOOOCDOOOO 

ooooooooooooooooooooooo 

» 

d 

TticDiH050!McodcoQdo5rHC<i-tuor^QOOiHCOHt<o^ 
— irHTHrHrHCSIC<J'MCJQ<IO"COCOCOCOCOCO 

d 

CO  IH  ^ 0 — ' rH  05  01 1'-  0 <0  0 CO  CO  rH  cc  rH  H'  05  C-si  I'  0 iO 
OOOOrHOoOOOOrHOOOOrHOO  OOO'O 

rH 

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■Tt<iOtHQ005-HCC|rH»dt^Qd<05— 'ciHiidcdooos  — 

rH— irHr-^rHrHr-trMCMC-aC^CMfMCsICOeOCOCO 

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cddcot-^QOOTHc^cdidcDiHQodrHc^icoiO'-ot^csoor— 1 
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355 


Explanation. — To  ascertain  the  number  of  feet,  multiply  the  number  of  feet  in  length  by  the 
number  of  inches  in  width,  and  divide  the  product  by  12  ; the  result  will  be  the  number  in  feet  and 
inches.  Thus,  multiply  9 inches  wide  by  26  feet  long,  and  the  result  will  be  234.  Divide  this  by 
and  we  have  the  product  19  feet  and  6 inches. 


Scantling  and  Timber  Measure  Reduced  to  One-Inch 
Board  Measure. 

To  ascertain  the  number  of  feet  of  scantling  or  timber,  say  i8  feet  long  and  2 by 
3 inches:  Find  2 by  3 in  the  top  columns,  and  18  in  the  left  hand  column,  and  under 
2 by  3 and  against  18  is  9 feet.  If  the  scantling  is  longer  than  contained  in  the 
table,  add  two  lengths  together.  If  shorter,  take  part  off  same  length. 


THICKNESS  AND  WIDTH  IN  INCHES. 


2x2 

2x3 

2x4 

2x5 

2x6 

2x7 

2x8 

2x9 

3x3 

3x4 

3x5 

3x6 

3x7 

3x8 

3x9 

4x4. 

6 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

IT" 

To 

X" 

Te 

TT 

iTe 

nr 

K6 

T” 

7 

2.4 

3.6 

4.8 

5.10 

7. 

8.2 

9.4 

10.6 

5.3 

7. 

8.9 

10.6 

12.3 

14. 

15.9 

9.4 

S 

2.8 

4. 

5.4 

6.8 

8. 

9.4 

10.8 

12. 

6. 

8. 

10. 

12. 

14. 

16. 

18. 

10. 

9 

3. 

4.6 

6. 

7.6 

9. 

10.6 

12. 

13.6 

6.9 

9. 

11.3 

13.6 

15.9 

18. 

2J.3 

12. 

10 

■3.4 

5. 

6.8 

8.4 

10. 

11.8 

13.5 

15. 

7.6 

10. 

12.6 

15. 

17.6 

20. 

22.6 

13.4 

11 

3.8 

5.6 

7.4 

9.2 

11. 

12.10 

14.8 

16.6 

8.3 

11. 

13.9 

16.6 

19.3 

22. 

24.9,14.8 

12 

4. 

6. 

8. 

10. 

12. 

14. 

16. 

18. 

9. 

12. 

15. 

18. 

21. 

24. 

27.  16. 

13 

4 4 

6.6 

8.8 

10.10 

13. 

15.2 

17.4 

19.6 

9.9 

13. 

16.3 

19.6 

22.9 

26. 

29.3  17  4 

14 

4.8 

7. 

9.4 

11.8 

14. 

16.4 

18.8 

21. 

10.6 

14. 

17.6 

21. 

24.6 

28. 

31.6  18  8 

15 

5. 

7.6 

10. 

12.6 

15. 

17.6 

20. 

22.6 

11.3 

j5. 

18.9 

22.6 

26.3 

30. 

33.9  20. 

16 

5.4 

8. 

10.8 

13.4 

16. 

18.8 

21.4 

24. 

12 

16. 

20. 

24. 

2S. 

32. 

36. 

21.4 

17 

5.8 

8.6 

11.4 

14.2 

17. 

19.10 

22.8 

25.6 

i2.9 

17. 

21.3 

25.6 

29.9 

34. 

38  3'22.8 

18 

6. 

9. 

12. 

15. 

18. 

21. 

24. 

27. 

13.6 

j8. 

22.6 

27. 

31.6 

36. 

40.6^24. 

19 

6.4 

9.6 

12.8 

15.10 

19. 

22.2 

25.4 

28.6 

14.3 

19. 

z3.9 

28.6 

33.3 

38. 

42.9 

24.4 

20 

6.8‘ 

10. 

13.4 

16.8 

20. 

23.4 

26.8 

30. 

15. 

20. 

25. 

3u. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

26.8 

21 

7. 

10.6 

14. 

17.6 

21. 

24.6 

28. 

31.6 

15.9 

21. 

26.3 

31.6 

36.9 

42. 

47.3 

28. 

22 

7.4 

11. 

14.8 

18.4 

22. 

25.8 

29.4 

33. 

16.6 

22. 

27.6 

33. 

38.6 

44. 

49.6 

29.4 

23 

7.8 

11.6 

15.4 

19.2 

23. 

26.10 

30.8 

34.6 

17.3 

23. 

28.9 

34.6 

40.3 

46. 

51.9 

30.8 

24 

8. 

12. 

16. 

20. 

24. 

28. 

32. 

36. 

18. 

24. 

30. 

36. 

42. 

48. 

54. 

32. 

25 

8.4 

12.6 

16.8 

20.10 

25. 

29.2 

33  4 

37.6 

18.9 

25. 

31.3 

37.6 

43.9 

50. 

56.3 

33.4 

30 

10. 

15. 

20. 

25. 

30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

22.6 

30. 

37.6 

45. 

52.6 

60. 

67.6 

40. 

34 

11.4 

17. 

22.8 

28.4 

34. 

39.3 

45.4 

51. 

25.6 

34. 

42.6 

51. 

59.6 

68. 

76.6 

45.4 

40 

13.4 

20. 

26.8  33.4 

40. 

46.8 

53.4 

60. 

30. 

40. 

50. 

60. 

70. 

80. 

90. 

53. 

^ THICKNESS  AND  WIDTH  IN  INCHES. 

V : 


V 

5x4 

4x6 

4x7 

4x8 

4x9 

5x5 

5x6 

5x7 

5x8 

5x9 

6x6 

6x7 

6x5 

6x9 

6x10 

“6 

10. 

12. 

14. 

16. 

18. 

12.6 

15. 

17.6 

20. 

22.6 

18. 

21. 

24. 

27. 

30. 

7 

11.8 

14. 

16.4 

18.8 

21. 

14.7 

17.6 

20.5 

23.4 

26.3 

21. 

24.6 

28. 

31.6 

35. 

8 

13.4 

16. 

18.8 

21.4 

24. 

16.8 

20. 

23.4 

26.8 

30. 

24. 

28. 

32. 

36. 

40. 

9 

15. 

18. 

21. 

24. 

27. 

18.9 

22.6 

26.3 

30. 

33.9 

27. 

31.6 

36. 

40.6 

45. 

10 

16.8 

20. 

23.4 

26.8 

30. 

20.10 

25. 

29.2 

33.4 

37.6 

30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

50. 

11 

18.4 

22. 

25.8 

29.4 

S3. 

22.11 

27.6 

32.1 

36.8 

41.3 

33. 

38.6 

44. 

49.6 

55. 

12 

20. 

24. 

28. 

32. 

36. 

25. 

30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

36. 

42. 

48. 

54. 

60. 

13 

21.8 

26. 

30.4 

34.8 

39. 

27.1 

32.6 

37.11 

43.4 

48.9 

39. 

45.6 

52. 

58  6 

65. 

14 

23.4 

28. 

32.8 

37.4 

42. 

29.2 

35. 

40.10 

46.8 

52.6 

42. 

49. 

56. 

63. 

70. 

15 

25. 

30. 

a5. 

40. 

45. 

31.3 

37.6 

43.9 

50. 

56.3 

45. 

52.6 

60. 

67.6 

75. 

16 

26.8 

32. 

37.4 

42.8 

48. 

33.4 

40. 

46.8 

53.4 

60. 

48. 

56. 

64 

72. 

80. 

17 

28.4 

34. 

39.8 

45.4 

51. 

35  5 

42.6 

49.7 

56.8 

63.9 

51. 

69.6 

68. 

76.6 

85. 

18 

30. 

36. 

42. 

48. 

54. 

37.6 

45. 

52.6 

60. 

67.6 

54. 

63. 

72. 

81. 

90. 

19 

31.8 

38. 

44.4 

50.8 

57. 

39.7 

47.6 

55.5 

63.4 

71.3 

57. 

66.6 

76. 

85.6 

95. 

20 

33.4 

40. 

46.8 

53.4 

60. 

41.8 

50. 

58.4 

66.8 

75. 

60. 

70. 

80. 

90. 

100. 

21 

35. 

42. 

49. 

56. 

63. 

43.9 

52.6 

61.3 

70. 

78.9 

63. 

73.6 

84. 

94.6 

105. 

22 

36.8 

44. 

51.4 

58.8 

66. 

45.10 

55. 

64.2 

73.4 

82.6 

66. 

77. 

88. 

99. 

110. 

23 

38.4 

46. 

53.8 

61.4 

69. 

47.11 

57.6 

67.1 

76.8 

86.3 

69. 

80.6 

92. 

103.6 

115. 

24 

40. 

48. 

56. 

64. 

72. 

50. 

60. 

70. 

80. 

90. 

72. 

84. 

96. 

108. 

120. 

25 

41.8 

50. 

58.4 

66.8 

75. 

52.1 

62.6 

72.11 

83.4 

93.9 

75. 

87.6 

100. 

112.6 

125. 

30 

50. 

60. 

70. 

80. 

90. 

62.6 

75. 

87.6 

109. 

112.6 

90. 

105. 

120. 

135. 

150. 

34 

56.8 

68. 

79.4 

90.8102. 

70.10 

85. 

99.2 

113.4 

127.6 

102. 

119. 

136. 

153. 

170. 

40 

66.8 

80. 

93.4106.8120. 

83.4 

100. 

116.8 

133.4 

150. 

120. 

140. 

160. 

180. 

200. 

35G 


Reduced  to  Incti  Board  Pleasure 

Find  the  length  of  the  log  in  feet  in  the  left  hand  column,  and  its  mean  diameter 
in  inches  (found  by  adding  the  two  end  diameters  and  dividing  their  sum  by  two)  at 
the  heads  of  the  other  columns,  and  trace  them  until  they  meet,  and  the  figures  so 
found  will  express  the  diameter  of  feet  board  measure  of  inch  boards  the  log  will 
measure. 


(N 

eo 

lO 

to 

QO 

05 

o 

oq 

CO 

to 

CD 

Ir- 

1—* 

<M 

CSI 

CN 

CM 

CM 

fa 

s 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

s 

B 

6 

B 

6 

6 

B 

B 

6 

B 

B 

rt 

rt 

rt 

Cj 

rt 

rt 

n 

a 

rt 

a 

rt 

rt 

a 

rt 

C3 

d 

a 

Q 

Q 

P 

Q 

P 

P 

P 

P 

P 

P 

p 

P 

P 

P 

5 

P 

P 

10 

49 

61 

72 

89 

99 

116 

133 

150 

175 

190 

209 

235 

252 

287 

313 

342 

363 

11 

54 

67 

79 

98 

109 

127 

147 

165 

192 

209 

230 

259 

278 

315 

344 

377 

400 

12 

59 

73 

86 

107 

119 

139 

160 

180 

210 

228 

251 

283 

303 

344 

373 

411 

436 

13 

64 

79 

93 

116 

129 

150 

173 

195 

227 

247 

272 

306 

328 

373 

408 

445 

473 

14 

69 

85 

100 

125 

139 

162 

187 

210 

245 

266 

292 

330 

353 

401 

439 

479 

509 

15 

74 

91 

107 

134 

149 

173 

m 

225 

262 

285 

313 

353 

379 

430 

469 

514 

545 

16 

79 

97 

114 

142 

159 

185 

213 

240 

280 

304 

334 

377 

404 

459 

500 

548 

582 

17 

81 

103 

122 

151 

168 

196 

2z7 

255 

297 

323 

355 

400 

429 

478 

531 

582 

618 

18 

88 

109 

129 

160 

178 

208 

240 

270 

315 

342 

376 

424 

454 

516 

562 

616 

654 

19 

93 

116 

136 

169 

188 

219 

253 

285 

332 

361 

397 

447 

480 

545 

594 

650 

692 

20 

98 

122 

143 

178 

198 

232 

267 

300 

350 

380 

418 

470 

505 

573 

625 

684 

728 

21 

103 

128 

150 

187 

208 

243 

280 

315 

368 

399 

439 

495 

530 

602 

656 

719 

764 

22 

108 

134 

157 

196 

218 

255 

293 

330 

385 

418 

460 

518 

555 

631 

688 

753 

800 

23 

113 

140 

164 

205 

228 

266 

307 

345 

403 

437 

480 

512 

581 

659 

719 

787 

837 

24 

118 

146 

172 

214 

238 

278 

320 

360 

420 

456 

501 

566 

606 

688 

750 

821 

873 

25 

123 

152 

179 

223 

248 

289 

333 

375 

438 

475 

522 

589 

631 

717 

781 

856 

910 

05 

o 

CM 

CO 

■rH 

to 

00 

o 

CM 

CO 

J 

(M 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

V 

V 

B 

B 

6 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

6 

B 

B 

B 

a 

HH 

d 

d 

rt 

d 

d 

d 

d 

d 

d 

d 

oJ 

d 

d 

d 

d 

P 

P 

P 

P 

P 

*p 

P 

P 

P 

P 

5 

P 

P 

P 

P 

5 

10 

381 

411 

448 

460 

490 

500 

547 

577 

644 

669 

700 

752 

795 

840 

872 

11 

419 

451 

448 

506 

539 

550 

602 

634 

708 

734 

770 

828 

874 

924 

959 

12 

457 

493 

532 

552 

588 

600 

657 

692 

772 

801 

840 

903 

954 

1007 

1046 

13 

495 

534 

570 

598 

637 

650 

712 

750 

836 

868 

910 

978 

1033 

1091 

3135 

14 

533 

575 

622 

644 

686 

700 

766 

807 

901 

934 

980 

1053 

1113 

1175 

1222 

15 

571 

616 

666 

690 

735 

750 

821 

865 

965 

1001 

1050 

1129 

1192 

1259 

1309 

16 

CC.9 

657 

710 

736 

784 

800 

876 

923 

1029 

1068 

1120 

1204 

3272 

1343 

1396 

17 

647 

698 

755 

782 

833 

850 

931 

980 

1094 

1134 

1190 

1279 

1351 

1427 

1485 

18 

685 

739 

799 

828 

882 

900 

985 

1038 

1158 

1201 

1260 

1354 

1431 

1511 

1571 

19 

723 

780 

843 

874 

931 

950 

1040 

1096 

1222 

1268 

1330 

1430 

1510 

3595 

1658 

20 

761 

821 

888 

920 

980 

1000 

1095 

1152 

1287 

1335 

1400 

1505 

1590 

1679 

1745 

21 

800 

863 

932 

966 

1029 

1050 

1150 

1210 

22 

838 

904 

976 

1012 

1078 

1100 

1204 

1268 

23 

876 

945 

1021 

1058 

1127 

1150 

1259 

1322 

24 

914 

986 

1065 

1104 

1176 

1200 

1314 

1380 

25 

9)2 

1027 

1109 

1150 

1225 

1250 

1369 

14381.... 



The  Falls  of  Niagara  have  cut  a channel  through  the  solid 

rocks  200  feet  deep,  1,200  to  2,000  feet  wide  and  seven  miles  long.  The  evidence 
is  conclusive  that  the  falls  were  formerly  at  Queenstown,  seven  miles  below  their 
present  situation.  It  has  been  shown  that  they  have  receded  not  more  than  a foot  a 
year  for  the  past  half  century, 

Alexander  the  Great  was  born  in  Europe,  died  in  Asia, 

and  was  buried  in  Africa.  The  preparations  for  his  funeral  consumed  two  years’ 
time.  The  immense  car  containing  the  golden  sarcophagus  was  drawn  by  sixty- 
four  white  mules,  richly  caparisoned,  a distance  of  a thousand  miles—from  the. 
Euphrates  to  the  Nile. 

357 


Xatile  Kor  Gold  miners. 

To  ascertain  the  quantity  of  gold  in  any  bulk  of  ore  it  is  not 
necessary  to  reduce  the  mass.  A proportional  reduction  will 
suffice,  and  the  following  table  is  based  on  trials  of  four  hundred 
grains  of  ore: 


If  400  Grains 
OF  Ore  give 
Fine  Gold, 

One  Ton  of 

Ore 

Will  Yield 

If  400  Grains 
OF  Ore  give 
Fine  Gold, 

One  Ton  of 

Ore 

Will  Yield 

Grains. 

Oz. 

Dwts. 

Grs. 

Grains. 

Oz. 

Dwts. 

Grs. 

.001 

0 

1 

15 

.200  

16 

6 

16 

.002 

0 

3 

6 

.300  

24 

10 

0 

.003  

0 

4 

21 

.400  

32 

13 

8 

.004 

0 

6 

12 

.500  

40 

16 

16 

.005 

0 

8 

4 

.600  

49 

0 

0 

.006  

0 

9 

19 

.700 

57 

3 

8 

.007 

0 

11 

10 

.800  

65 

6 

16 

.008  

0 

13 

1 

.900  

73 

10 

0 

.009 

0 

14 

16 

1.000  

81 

13 

8 

.010 

0 

16 

8 

2.000  ....... 

163 

16 

16 

.020 

1 

12 

16 

3.000  

245 

0 

0 

.030 

2 

9 

0 

4.000  

326 

13 

8 

.040  

3 

5 

8 

5.000  

408 

6 

16 

.050 

4 

1 

16 

6.000  

490 

0 

0 

.060 

4 

18 

0 

7.000  

570 

13 

8 

.070  

5 

14 

8 

8.000  

653 

6 

]6 

.080 

6 

10 

16 

9.000  

735 

0 

0 

.090 

7 

7 

0 

10.000  

816 

13 

8 

.100 

8 

3 

8 

20.000  .... 

1633 

6 

16 

The  sayings  of  the  Seven  Wise  Men  are  the  famous  mottoes 

inscribed  in  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi;  Solon  of  Athens — “Know  thyself.’ 
Chilo  of  Sparta — “Consider  the  end.”  Thales  of  Miletus — “Suretyship  is  the  pre- 
cursor of  ruin.”  Bias  of  Priene — “Most  men  are  bad.”  Cleobulus  of  Lindus — 
“Avoid  excess.”  Pittacus  of  Mitylene — “Know  thy  opportunity.”  Periander  of 
Corinth — “Nothing  is  impossible  to  industry.” 

The  “Wandering  Jew”  was  last  seen  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. On  January  i,  1644,  he  appeared  at  Pans  and  created  a great  sensation 
among  all  ranks.  He  claimed  to  have  lived  sixteen  hundred  years  and  to  have 
traveled  through  all  regions  of  the  world.  He  was  visited  by  many  prominent  per- 
sonages, and  no  one  could  accost  him.  in  a language  of  which  he  was  ignorant.  He 
replied  readily  and  without  embarrassment  to  any  questions  propounded,  and  he  was 
never  confounded  by  any  amount  of  cross-questioning.  He  seemed  familiar  with  the 
history  of  persons  and  events  from  the  time  of  Christ,  and  claimed  an  acquaintance 
with  all  the  celebrated  characters  of  sixteen  centuries.  Of  himself  he  said  that  he 
was  usher  of  the  court  of  judgment  in  Jerusalem,  where  all  criminal  cases  were 
tried  at  the  time  of  our  Saviour;  that  his  name  was  Michab  Ader;  and  that  for  thrust- 
ing Jesus  out  of  the  hall  with  these  words,  “Go,  why  tarriest  thou?  ” the  Messiah 
answered  him,  “I  go,  but  tarry  thou  till  I come,”  thereby  condemning  him  to  live 
till  the  day  of  judgment.  The  learned  looked  upon  him  as  an  impostor  or  mad- 
man, yet  took  their  departure  bewildered  and  astonished. 

358 


NAILS  AND  SPIKES. 


SIZE,  LENGTH  AND  NUMBER  TO  POUND. 


CLINCH. 

Length 

Inches. 

No.  to  Lb.  : 

2 , 

152 

2K. 

133 

2^. 

92 

2%. 

72 

3 . 

60 

FENCE. 

43 

2 . 

96 

2K. 

66 

2K. 

56 

2M. 

50 

3 . 

SPIKES. 

40 

19 

4 . 

15 

4>^. 

13 

5 . 

10 

5)^ 

9 

6 . 

BOAT. 

7 

1>< 

206 

ORDINARY. 

Length. 

Size.  Inches.  No.  to  Lb. 

2^ i 716 

3  fine.  .1* 588 

3  lyV 448 

4  ....336 

6  IM 216 

6 2 166 

7  2K 118 

8  2K 94 

10 2% 72 

12 3>^ 60 

20 3^  ....  32 

30 4J^ 20 

40 4% 17 

50 5 14 

60 6K 10 

LIGHT. 

4“ 1%  ....373 

5  1% 272 

6 ....  2 196 

BRADS. 

6^ 2 163 

8 2}4 96 

10 2% 74 

12 3K 50 


Size. 

Length 

Inches. 

No.  to  Lb. 

4'*.. 

...IK.. 

...384 

5 .. 

...IK.. 

...256 

6 .. 

...2  .. 

...204 

8 .. 

...2K.. 

...102 

10  .. 

...3  .. 

...80 

12  .. 

...3%.. 

...65 

20  .. 

...3K  . 

...46 

6^. 

CORE. 

...2  .. 

...143 

10 2% 

12  ....  3^ 
20  ... . S)i 

30 m 

40 


68 
60 
42 
25 
18 

4^  ....  14 


W W 2% 69 

W H L2)^ 72 

SLATE. 

3* 1j-\ 288 

4  244 

5  1% 187 

6  2 146 


In  the  above  table  d stands  for  penny.  This  term  penny,  as 
applied  to  nails,  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from 
pound.  It  originally  meant  so  many  pounds  to  the  thousand; 
that  is,  six-penny  means  six  pounds  of  nails  to  the  thousand. 


Xacks. 


Size. 

Length. 

Number 

to 

Pound. 

Size. 

Length,  jj 

Number 

to 

Pound. 

Size. 

Length. 

Number 

to 

Pound. 

1 oz. 

K 

16000 

4 oz. 

tV 

4000 

14  oz. 

To 

1143 

4K 

10066 

1 « 

9 

1 6 

2666 

16 

% 

1000 

2 

K 

8000 

^ 8 

K 

2000 

18 

it 

888 

2K 

A 

6400 

10 

1600 

20 

1 

800 

3 

K 

5333 

. 12 

k 

1333 

22 

ItV 

727 

359 


RAILROAD  SPIKES, 


Size  Measured 
Under  Head. 

Average  No. 
per  keg 
of  200  lbs. 

Ties  two  feet  between  centers. 
Four  spikes  per  tie. 

Makes  per  Mile. 

Rail  used. 

Wt.  per  Yard. 

360 

5870  lbs. — 293^  kegs. 

45 

to  70 

5 Xj\ 

400 

5170 

(( 

—26 

(( 

40 

to  56 

6 xi^ 

450 

4660 

u 

-23K 

a 

35 

to  40 

530 

3960 

u 

—20 

it 

28 

to  35 

600 

3520 

u 

-17^ 

i( 

24 

to  35 

4KxA 

680 

3110 

u 

-15>^ 

it 

^ 20 

to  30 

4 XxV 

720 

2940 

u 

-14% 

(( 

900 

2350 

it 

-11% 

it 

[16 

to  25 

4 x% 

1000 

2090 

i( 

-40% 

t( 

3i^xK 

3 x% 

1190 

1240 

1780 

1710 

i( 

4( 

— 9 

- 8% 

({ 

it 

[16 

to  20 

2>^xM 

1342 

1575 

(( 

- 7% 

iC 

12 

to  16 

RAILS  REQUIRED  PER  MILE 

OF  FOLLOWING  WEIGHT  PER  YARD. 


Weight 

Tons  of  2,240  lbs. 

per  yard. 

per 

Mile. 

16  lbs. 

25  tons, 

320  lbs. 

20  “ 

31  “ 

960  “ 

25 

39  “ 

640  “ 

28  “ 

44  ‘'• 

0 

30 

47  “ 

320  “ 

CROSS  TIES,  PER 

MILE. 

Center  to  Center. 

No.  Ties. 

lU  Feet 

....3520 

1% 

it 

....3017 

2 

it 

....2640 

2% 

(i 

....2348 

2% 

it 

. ,.  2113 

Weight 

Tons  of  2.240  lbs. 

per  yard. 

per  Mile. 

35  lbs. 

55 

tons, 

0 

lbs. 

40  “ 

63 

it 

1920 

ft 

45  “ 

70 

it 

1600 

56  “ 

88 

it 

0 

it 

60 

94 

it 

640 

it 

65  “ 

102 

tt 

320 

it 

70  “ 

110 

tt 

0 

ft 

SPLICE  , 

JOINTS.  PER  MILE. 

Two  Bars  and  Four  Bolts  and  Nuts  to 

each 

Joint. 

Rails, 

20 

feet 

long, 

528  joints. 

it 

24 

it 

ic 

440 

ft 

it 

26 

it 

if 

406 

it 

(t 

28 

it 

it 

378 

ft 

{( 

30 

it 

ft 

352 

ft 

Nails  Required  for  Rifferent  Kinds  of  Work, 

For  1,000  shingles,  3^  to  5 lbs.  4c?.  nails,  or  3 to  2,%.  3<^. 

1,000  laths,  about  7 lbs.  -^d.  fine. 

1,000  feet  clapboards,  about  18  lbs.  6d.  box. 

1,000  feet  covering  boards,  about  20  lbs.  Zd.  common,  or  25  lbs.  lod. 

1,000  feet  upper  floors,  square  edged,  about  38  lbs.  \od.  floor,  or  41  lbs. 
12^/.  floor, 

1,000  leet  upper  floors,  matched  and  blind-nailed,  38  lbs.  10^.,  or  42  lbs. 
12^.  common. 

10  feet  partitions,  studs  or  studding,  1 lb.  jod.  common. 

1,000  feet  furring,  1x3,  about  45  lbs.  10^.  common. 

1,000  feet  furring,  1x2,  about  65  lbs.  io</.  commoq. 

1,000  feet  pine  finish,  about  30  lbs.  ^d.  finish. 

360 


Drick  Required  to  Construct  Any  Buildlnjs’* 

(Reckoning  7 brick  to  each  superficial  foot.) 


Superficial  Feet  of 
Wall. 

Number  of  Bricks  to  Thickness 

of 

4 in. 

8 in. 

12  in. 

16  in. 

20  in. 

24  in. 

1 

7 

15 

23 

30 

38 

45 

2 

15 

30 

45 

60 

75 

90 

3 

23 

45 

68 

90 

113 

135 

4 

30 

60 

90 

120 

150 

180 

5 

38 

75 

113 

150 

188 

225 

6 

45 

90 

135 

180 

225 

270 

7 

53 

105 

158 

210 

263 

315 

8 

60 

120 

180 

240 

300 

360 

9 

68 

135 

203 

270 

338 

405 

10 

75 

150 

225 

300 

375 

450 

20 

150 

300 

450 

600 

750 

900 

30  

225 

450 

675 

900 

1125 

1350 

40 

800 

600 

900 

1200 

1500 

1800 

50 

375 

750 

1125 

1500 

1875 

2250 

60 

450 

900 

1350 

1800 

2250 

2700 

70 

525 

1050 

1575 

2100 

2625 

3150 

80 

600 

1200 

1800 

2400 

3000 

3600 

90 

675 

1350 

2025 

2700 

3375 

4050 

100 

750 

1500 

2250 

3000 

3750 

4500 

200 

1500 

3000 

4500 

6000 

7500 

9000 

300 

2250 

4500 

6750 

9000 

11250 

13500 

400 

3000 

6000 

9000 

12000 

15000 

18000 

500 

3750 

7500 

11250 

15000 

18750 

22500 

600 

4500 

9000 

13500 

18000 

22500 

27000 

700  

5250 

10500 

15750 

21000 

26250 

31500 

800 

6000 

12000 

18000 

24000 

30000 

36000 

900 

6750 

13500 

20250 

27000 

33750 

40500 

1000 

7500 

1 15000 

' 22500 

30000 

37500 

45000 

Kacts  for  Builders. 

1,000  shingles,  laid  4 inches  to  the  weather,  will  cover  100  sq. 

ft.  of  surface,  and  5 lbs.  of  shingle  nails  will  fasten  them  on. 

One-fifth  more  siding  and  flooring  is  needed  than  the  number 
of  square  feet  of  surface  to  be  covered,  because  of  the  lap  in  the  siding  and  match- 
ing. 

1,000  laths  will  cover  70  yards  of  surface,  and  7 lbs.  of  lath 

nails  will  nail  them  on.  Eight  bushels  of  good  lime,  16  bushels  of  sand,  and  i 
bushel  of  hair  will  make  enough  good  mortar  to  plaster  100  square  yards. 

A cord  of  stone,  3 bushels  of  lime,  and  a cubic  j^ard  of  sand, 

will  lay  100  cubic  feet  of  wall. 

Cement  i bushel  and  sand  2 bushels  will  cover  3)^  square 
yards  i inch  thick,  A,y2  square  yards  ^ inch  thick,  6%  square  yards  inch  thick. 
1 bu.  cement  and  one  of  sand  will  cover  2^  square  yards  i inch  thick,  3 square 
yards  ^ inch  thick,  and  4^  square  yards  inch  thick. 


FACTS  FOR  BF1F.OFRS. 

Five  courses  of  brick  will  lay  i foot  in  height  on  a chimney. 

8 bricks  in  a course  will  make  a flue  4 ms.  wide  and  12  ins.  long,  and  16  bricks  in  a 
Course  will  make  a flue  8 ins  wide  and  16  ins.  long. 

Twenty-two  cubic  feet  of  stone,  when  built  into  the  wall,  is  i 

perch. 

Three  pecks  of  lime  and  four  bushels  of  sand  are  required  to 

each  perch  of  wall. 

There  are  20  common  bricks  to  a cubic  foot  when  laid;  and  15 

common  bricks  to  a foot  of  8-inch  wall  when  laid. 

Fifty  feet  of  boards  will  build  one  rod  of  fence  five  boards  high, 

first  board  being  10  inches  wide,  second  8 inches,  third  7 inches,  fourth  6 inches, 
fifth  5 inches. 

Useful  Facts  for  Bricklayers  and  Plasterers* 

The  average  weight  of  smaller-sized  bricks  is  about  4 Tbs.;  of 
the  larger  about  6 lbs. 

Dry  bricks  will  absorb  about  one-fifteenth  of  their  weight  in 
water. 

A load  of  mortar  measures  a cubic  yard,  or  27  cubic  ft.;  re- 
quires a cubic  yard  of  sand  and  9 birs.  of  lime  and  will  fill  30 
hods. 

A bricklayer’s  hod  i ft.  4 in.  by  9 in.  by  9 in.  equals  1,296  cubic 
in.  in  capacity,  and  contains  20  bricks. 

A single  load  of  sand  and  other  materials  equals  a cubic  yard, 
or  27  cubic  ft.;  a double  load  twice  that  quantity. 

One  thousand  bricks,  closely  stacked,  occupy  about  56  cubic 
ft.  One  thousand  old  bricks,  cleaned  and  loosely  stacked,  oc- 
cupy about  72  cubic  feet. 

One  superficial  foot  of  gauged  arches  requires  ten  bricks. 

One  superficial  foot  of  facings  requires  seven  bricks. 

One  yard  of  paving  requires  36  stock  bricks  laid  flat,  or  52  on 
edge,  and  36  paving  bricks  laid  flat,  or  82  on  edge. 

The  bricks  of  different  makers  vary  in  dimensions,  and  those 
of  the  same  maker  vary  also,  owing  to  varying  degrees  of  heat 
in  burning.  The  calculations  given  above  are  therefore  approxi- 
mate. 

One  hundred  yards  of  plastering  will  require  1,400  laths, 
bus.  lime,  four-fifths  of  a load  of  sand,  qlbs.  hair,  and  9 tbs.  nails, 
for  two-coat  work. 

Three  men  and  one  helper  will  put  on  450  yards,  in  a day’s 
work,  of  two-coat  work,  and  will  put  on  a hard  finish  for  300 
yards. 

A bushel  of  hair  weighs,  when  dry,  about  15  lbs. 

Putty,  for  Plastering,  is  a very  fine  cement  made  of  lime 

only.  It  is  thus  prepared:  Dissolve  in  a small  quantity  of  water,  as  two  or  three 
gallons,  an  equal  quantity  of  fresh  fime,  constantly  stirring  it  with  a stick  until  the 
lime  be  entirely  slacked,  and  the  whole  becomes  of  a suitable  consistency,  so  that 
when  the  stick  is  taken  out  of  it,  it  will  but  just  drop  therefrom;  this,  being  sifted  or 
run  through  a hair  sieve,  to  take  out  the  gross  parts  of  the  lime,  is  fit  for  use.  Putty 
differs  from  fine  stuff  in  the  manner  of  preparing  it.  and  its  being  used  without 
hair.  302 


ESTIIWATES  OF  IflATERIAES. 


To  Find  the  Number  of  Bricks’Required  in  a Building 

i-Rule— Multiply  the  number  of  cubic  feet  byaaj^.  The  number  of  cubic  feet  is 
found  by  multiplying  the  length,  height  and  thickness  (in  feet)  together.  Bricks  are 
usually  made  8 inches  long,  4 inches  wide  and  2 inches  thick;  hence  it  requires  27 
bricks  to  make  a cubic  foot  without  mortar,  but  it  is  generally  assumed  that  the 
mortar  fills  1-6  of  the  space. 

Estimates  of  Materials. — barrels  of  lime  will  do  loo 

square  yards  plastering,  two  coats. 

2 barrels  of  lime  will  do  100  square  yards  plastering,  one  coat. 

bushels  of  hair  will  do  100  square  yards  plastering. 

1 54  yards  good  sand  will  do  100  square  yards  plastering. 

Yi  barrel  of  plaster  (stucco)  will  hard-finish  too  square  yards  plastering. 

1 barrel  of  lime  will  lay  1,000  bricks.  (It  takes  good  lime  to  do  it.) 

2 barrels  of  lime  will  lay  i cord  rubble  stone. 

Y barrel  of  lime  will  lay  i perch  rubble  stone  (estimating  Y cord  to  perch). 

To  every  barrel  of  lime  estimate  about  yards  of  good  sand  for  plastering  and 
brick  work. 

. Mason  Work — Brick. — barrels  lime  and  % yard  sand 

will  lay  1,000  brick. 

One  man  with  1)4  tenders  will  lay  1,800  to  2,000  brick  per  day. 

Rubble. — i^  barrels  lime  and  i yard  of  sand  ^’^ll  lay  100  feet 

of  stone. 

One  man  will  lay  150  feet  of  stone  per  day  with  one  tender. 

Cement. — 134  barrels  cement  and  % yard  sand  will  lay  100 

feet  rubble  stone.  Same  time  as  to  mason  and  tender  as  rubble. 

Floor,  Wall  and  Roof  Measure. — To  find  the  number*  of 

square  yards  in  a floor  or  wall:  Rule — Multiply  the  length  by  the  width  or  height 
(in  feet)  and  divide  the  product  by  9;  the  result  will  be  square  yards. 


Big  Salaries. — There  are  a score  of  men  in  New  York  who 

are  paid  as  much  for  their  services  each  year  as  the  President  of  the  United  States. 
Forty  thousand  dollars  a year  is  a very  tidy  salary.  There  are  hundreds  of  men  who 
get  $25,000  a year  salary,  and  the  number  who  get  from  $10,000  to  $20,000  are  legion. 
Very  ordinary  men  get  from  $5,000  to  $8,000  a year,  or  as  much  as  a Cabinet  officer. 
Dr.  Norvin  (jreen,  president  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company,  is  paid  $50,- 
000.  So  is  Chauncey  M.  Depew,  president  of  the  New  York  Central  Railroad. 
Richard  M.  McCurdy,  president  of  the  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Company,  gets  a like 
amount.  John  Hoey,  president  of  Adams  Express  Company,  fares  equally  as  well. 
President  Henry  B.  Hyde,  of  the  Equitable  Life  Insurance  (Company,  is  also  on  the 
list.  George  G.  Williams,  president  of  the  Chemical  National  Bank,  the  richest 
banking  institution  in  America,  with  nearly  $5,000,000  of  surplus,  $20,000,000  average 
deposits,  is  paid  a salary  of  $25,000  yearly.  President  Potts  of  the  Paris  Bank  and 
President  Tappan  of  the  (Gallatin  National  Bank  receive  a like  sum  each  twelve 
months.  The  best  paid  minister  in  New  York  is  Dr.  John  Hall,  a brainy  man  from 
the  north  of  Ireland,  who  preaches  to  $20,000,000  every  Sunday.  His  is  the  smallest 
church  in  town.  He  owes  his  rise  in  life  to  Robert  Bonner  of  the  Ledger,  who 
found  him  preaching  to  a small  delegation  in  Dublin,  and  induced  him  to  come  to 
America.  He  gets  a salary  of  $20,000  a year  and  makes  $5,000  by  his  newspaper 
and  magazine  articles.  He  is  given  a luxuriously  furnished  house  as  w^ell.  Dr. 
Morgan  Dix,  the  chief  pastor  of  Trinity  Church  corporation,  the  wealthiest  in  Amer- 
ica, receives  $15,000  yearly.  Dr.  William  L.  Taylor,  of  the  Broadway  Tabernacle, 
gets  the  same  amount.  He  does  literary  work  and  lecturing  that  brings  his  income 
up  to  $20,000.  Dr.  Charles  Hall,  of  the  Fifth  Avenue  Presbyterian  Church,  is  paid 
$15,000.  He  is  very  eloquent,  and  his  church  is  crowded  at  all  services.  Dr.  Park- 
hurst,  of  Madison  Square  Church,  gets  $12,000.  He  has  a large  and  distinguished 
congregation.  Cyrus  W.  Field  is  one  of  the  pillars  of  the  church.  Dr.  Paxton,  who 
preaches  to  Jay  Gould  and  others  less  wealthy,  is  paid  $15,000.  The  Rev.  Robert 
Collyer,  the  blacksmith  preacher,  is  paid  $10,000. 

363 


BUILDERS’  ESTIMATING  TABLES. 

Quantity  of  material  in  every  four  lineal  feet  of  exterior  wall  in  a balloon  frame 
building,  height  of  wall  being  given  : 


Length  of 
Studs. 

Size  of  Sills. 

Size  of  Studs,  Braces, 
etc. 

Quantity 

of  Rough 

Lumber. 

Quantity  of 

Inch 

Boarding. 

Siding  in 

sup.  feet. 

Tar  Paper 

in  sup.  feet. 

8 

6x  6 

2x4  Studs 

42 

36 

40 

74 

10 

6x  8 

4x4  Braces 

62 

44 

50 

80 

12 

6x10 

4x4  Plates 

62 

53 

60 

96 

14 

6x10 

1x6  Ribbons 

69 

62 

70 

112 

16 

8x10 

82 

71 

80 

128 

18 

8x10 

Studs 

87 

80 

90 

144 

20 

8x12 

16  inches  from 

98 

88 

100 

160 

22 

9x12 

centers 

109 

97 

110 

176 

24 

10x12 

119 

106 

120 

192 

18 

10x10 

2x6  Studs 

122 

80 

90 

144  * 

20 

10x12 

6x6  Braces 

137 

88 

100 

160 

22 

10x12 

4x6  Plates 

145 

97 

110 

176 

24 

12x1? 

1x6  Ribbons 

162 

106 

120 

192 

26 

10x14 

169 

114 

130 

208 

28 

10x14 

Studs  16  inch  centers 

176 

123 

140 

224 

80 

12x14 

198 

132 

150 

240 

Amount  of  lumber  in  rafters,  collar-piece  and  boarding,  and  number  of  shingles  to 
* four  lineal  feet  of  roof,  measured  from  eave  to  eave  over  ridge. 

Rafters  i6-inch  centers : 


Width  of 
House, 
Feet. 

Size  of 
Rafters. 

Size 

of  Collar- 
piece. 

Quantity  of  Lumber  in 
Rafter  and  Col- 
lar-piece. 

Quantity  of 
Boarding, 
Feet. 

No.  of 
Shingles. 

14 

2x4 

2x4 

39 

91 

560 

16 

2x4 

2x4 

45 

70 

640 

18 

2x4 

2x4 

50 

79 

720 

20 

2x4 

2x4 

56 

88 

800 

22 

2x4 

2x4 

62 

97 

880 

24 

2x4 

2x4 

67 

106 

960 

. 20 

2x6 

2x6 

84 

88 

800 

22 

2x6 

2x6 

92 

97 

880 

24 

2x6 

2x6 

101 

106 

960 

26 

2x6 

2x6 

109 

115 

1040 

28 

2x6 

2x6 

117 

124 

1120 

30 

2x6 

2x6 

126 

133 

1200 

Comparative  Strength  of  Timber  and  Cast  Iron. 

Table  showing  the  transverse  strength  of  timber  and  of  cast  iron  one 
foot  long  and  one  inch  square. 


MATERIAL. 

Breaking 
Weight,  lbs. 

Weight  Borne 
with  Safety,  lbs. 

Ash,  seasoned 

175 

105 

Thestnut,  seasoned 

170 

115 

Hickory,  seasoned. '. 

270 

200 

White  Oak,  seasoned 

240 

196 

White  Pine,  seasoned 

135 

95 

Vellow  Pine,  seasoned 

150 

100 

Iron  (cast) 

5,781 

4,000 

364 


HOW  TO  USE  CEMENT, 


The  following  general  rules  referring  to  the  practical  use  of 
cement  will  be  found  convenient  for  reference: 

Quality  of  Sand — The  sand  should  be  clean,  sharp  and  coarse.  When  the  sand 
is  mixed  with  loam  the  mortar  will  set  comparatively  slow,  and  the  work  will  be 
comparatively  weak.  Fine  sand,  and  especially  water-worn  sand,  delays  the  set- 
ting of  the  cement,  and  deteriorates  strength.  Damp  sand  should  not  be  mixed 
with  dry  cement,  but  the  cement  and  sand  should  be  mixed  thoroughly  and  uni- 
formly together,  when  both  are  dry,  and  no  water  should  be  applied  until  imme- 
diately before  the  mortar  is  wanted  for  use. 

Proportion  of  Sand — The  larger  the  proportion  of  cement  the  stronger  the 
work.  One  part  of  good  cement  to  two  parts  sand  is  allowable  for  ordinary  work; 
but  for  cisterns,  cellars,  and  work  requiring  special  care,  half  and  half  is  the  better 
proportion.  For  floors,  the  cement  should  be  increased  toward  the  surface. 

Water  in  Concrete — Use  no  more  water  in  cement  than  absolutely  necessary. 
Cement  requires  but  a very  small  quantity  of  water  in  crystalizing.  Merely  damp- 
ening the  material  gives  the  best  results.  Any  water  in  excess  necessarily  evapor- 
ates and  leaves  the  hardened  cement  comparatively  weak  and  porous. 

Concrete  in  Water — Whenever  concrete  is  used  under  water,  care  must  be 
taken  that  the  water  is  still.  So  say  all  English  and  American  authorities.  In  lay- 
ing cellar  floors,  or  constructing  cisterns  or  similar  work,  care  must  also  be  taken  to 
avoid  pressure  of  exterior  water.  Cement  will  not  crystalize  when  disturbed  by 
the  force  of  currents,  or  pressure  of  water,  but  will  resist  currents  and  pressure  after 
hardening  only.  In  still  water,  good  cement  will  harden  quicker  than  in  air,  and 
when  kept  in  water  will  be  stronger  than  when  kept  in  air.  Cements  which  harden 
especially  quick  in  air  are  usually  slow  or  worthless  in  water. 

Howto  Put  Down  Concrete — When  strong  work  is  wanted,  for  cellar  floors 
and  all  similar  work,  the  concrete  should  be  dampened  and  tamped  down  to  place, 
with  the  back  of  a spade,  or  better,  with  the  end  of  a plank  or  rammer;  then  finished 
off  with  a trowel,  thus  leveling  and  compacting  the  work.  Only  persons  ignor- 
ant of  the  business  will  lay  a floor  or  walk  with  soft  cement  mortar.  All  artificial 
stone  is  made  in  a similar  way  to  that  described,  and,  when  set,  is  strong  and  hard 
as  stone. 

Delay  in  Use— Do  not  permit  the  mortar  to  exhaust  its  setting  properties  by  de- 
laying its  use  when  ready.  Inferior  cements  only  will  remain  standing  in  the  mortar- 
bed  any  length  of  time  without  serious  injury. 

Stone  and  Brick  Work-In  buildings  constructed  ot  stone  or  brick,  the  best 
protection  from  dampness  and  decay,  and  also  from  the  danger  of  cyclones,  is  a 
mortar  of  cement  and  coarse  sand.  - The  extra  cost  is  inconsiderable,  and  the  in- 
creased value  of  the  structure  very  great.  Chimneys  laid  in  this  manner  never  blow 
down,  and  cellars  whose  foundations  are  thus  laid  are  always  free  from  atmospheric 
moisture.  Cement  may  also  be  mixed  with  lime  mortar  for  plastering  and  other 
purposes,  to  great  advantage. 

Effect  of  Frost  and  Cold — At  a temperature  less  than  6o  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
all  good  cement  sets  slowly,  though  surely,  but  if  allowed  to  freeze  its  value  is  seri- 
ously impaired.  In  cold  weather  or  cold  water  do  not  fear  to  wait  for  your  concrete 
to  crystalize. 

Damage  from  Moisture— Good  cement  is  not  injured  by  age,  if  carefully  pre- 
served from  moisture.  Lumps  in  bags  or  barrels  of  cement  are  caused  by  exposure 
to  moisture.  They  prove  the  originally  good  quality  of  the  cement. 


The  Ramphorhjncus,  the  remains  of  which  have  been  found 

in  the  quarries  of  Solenhofen,  Germany,  was  a curious  intermediate  link  between 
birds  and  reptiles.  Its  tail,  a singular  appendage,  was  long,  reptile-like,  and 
dragged  upon  the  ground,  while  its  footprints  were  bird-like. 

John  Verrazanni,  an  eminent  Florentine  navigator,  in 

1524,  landed  where  the  lower  extremity  of  New  York  City  is,  and  giving  the 
natives  some  spirituous  liquors  made  many  of  them  drunk.  The  Indians  called  the 
place  Manna-ha-ta,  or  “place  of  drunkenness,”  and  they  were  afterwards  called 
Manna-ha-tans. 


365 


USEFUL  TABLES  FOR  PLUMBERS,  ETC, 


SIZES  AND  WEIGHTS  OF  LEAD  PIPE. 


Weight 

per 

foot. 

LBS. 

oz. 

3 

t ^ 

15 

8 

9 

12 

1 

1 

8 1 

2 

10 

12 

1 

1 

4 2 

1 

12 

2 

2 

8 

3 

12 

1 

4 

1 

12  1 

2 

2 

8 

3 

3 

8 

1 

1 

8 . 

2 

■ 2 

4 

3 

3 

8 

• 4 

• 1 

8 

• 2 

• 2 

8 

• 3 

• 3 

8 

• 1 

8 

. 2 

. 2 

8 

. 3 

4 

. 4 

. 4 

12 

. 5 

8 

. 2 

. 2 

8 

. 3 

12 

CALIBRE. 


•3^  inch  Tubing 

^ inch  Tubing 

inch  Tubing 

^ inch  Tubing 

Fish  Seine 

% inch  Aqueduct 

Ex.  Light 

Light  

Medium 

Strong 

Ex.  Strong 

^ inch  Aqueduct 

Ex.  Light 

Light  

Medium 

Strong 

AA 

Ex.  Strong 

Ex.  Ex.  Strong. . 

^ inch  Aqueduct 

Ex.  Light 

Light 

Medium 

Strong 

Ex.  Strong 

Ex.  Ex.  Strong. . 

^ inch  Aqueduct 

Ex.  Light 

Light 

Medium 

Strong 

Ex.  Strong 

Ex.  Ex.  Strong.. 

% inch  Aqueduct 

Ex.  Light 

Light 

Medium 

Strong 

1 inch  Aqueduct 

Ex.  Light 

Light 

Medium 

Strong 

Ex.  Strong 

Ex.  Ex.  Strong. 

inch  Aqueduct 

Ex.  Light 

Light 

Medium  . ^ . . . . 


CALIBRE. 


Ex.  Strong 

Ex.  Ex.  Strong. 


Ex.  Light 

Light 

Medium 

Strong 

Ex.  Strong 

Ex.  Ex.  Strong. . 

^ inch  Ex.  Light 

Light 

Medium 

Strong 

Ex.  Strong 

inch  Waste 

Ex.  Light 

Light 

Medium 

Strong 

Ex.  Strong 

Ex.  Ex.  Strong. 


Light 

thi  :k. . 
'%  thick. . 

thick. , 
^ thick., 
inch  Waste  .... 
Waste  ... 
Light..  .. 
y\  thick  . 
^ thick.. 
y\  thick. , 
% thick., 

inch  Waste 

^ thick.. 
y\  thick. , 

inch  Waste 

Waste  . . 
Waste  . . . 
Waste  . . . 

thick. 
y\  thick. 
% thick, 
inch  Waste. . . 

5 inch  Waste... 

6 inch  Waste  . . . 


Weight 
per  foot. 


12 


Seest  thou  a man  diligent  in  his  business  } He  shall  stand 
before  kings;  he  shall  not  stand  before  mean  men. — Old  Testament. 

366 


SIZES  AND  WEIGHTS  OF  PURE  BLOCK  TIN  PIPE. 


3-16  in 
5-16 

% 


.4  oz. 

,4  oz.  and 

5 “ “ 

4 “ “ 

6 “ “ 

.9  “ 


6 oz. 
8 “ 

6 “ 

8 “ 
12  “ 


% in 

1 “ 


..7  oz.  and  12  oz. 
,12  “ “ 16  “ 
,1141b.  and  1%  lb. 

.13^“  “ 2 “ 


WEIGHT  PER  SQUARE  FOOT  OF  SHEET  LEAD. 


1-32  in.  thick 

2 lbs. 

1-10  in.  thick 

7 

lbs. 

3-64  “ “ 

2’4  “ 

% “ “ 

8 

1-25  “ “ 

3 “ 

5-32  “ “ 

10 

<< 

1-16  “ “ 

4 “ 

3-16  “ “ 

12 

1-14  “ 

5 “ 

7-32  “ “ 

14 

a 

1-12  “ “ 

6 “ 

^4  “ “ 

16 

WEIGHT  PER  JOINT  OF  LEAD  AND  GASKET  FOR  STREET  MAINS. 


Lead.  Gasket. 

Lead. 

Gasket. 

2-inch  Pipe,  3.25 

lbs.,  0.050  lbs. 

10-inch 

Pipe, 

15  lbs.. 

0.30  lbs. 

3-inch 

“ 4.72 

“ 0.075  “ 

12-inch 

ii 

20  “ 

0.35  “ 

4-inch 

“ 6. 

“ 0.115  “ 

16-inch 

U 

25  “ 

0.45 

6-inch 

“ 0. 

“ 0.175  “ 

18-inch 

(( 

29  “ 

0.52  “ 

8 inch 

“ T2. 

0.250  “ 

20-inch 

U 

43  “ 

0.60  “ 

CAPACITY  OF  DRAIN-PIPE. 


Gallons  Per  Minute. 


Size  of 

Pipe. 

in.  Fall 

per  100  feet. 

3-in.  Fall 

per  100  feet. 

6-in.  Fall 

per  100  feet. 

9-in.  Fall 

per  100  feet. 

12-in.  Fall 
per  lOO  feet. 

18-in.  Fall 

per  100  feet. 

24-in.  Fall 

per  100  feet. 

36-in.  Fall 

1 per  100  feet. 

3-inch. 

21 

30 

42 

52 

60 

74 

85 

104 

4 

u 

36 

52 

76 

92 

108 

132 

148 

184 

6 

tl 

84 

120 

169 

206 

240 

294 

338 

414 

9 

n 

232 

330 

470 

570 

660 

810 

930 

1140 

12 

n 

470 

680 

960 

1160 

1360 

1670 

1920 

2350 

15 

n 

830 

1180 

1^80 

2040 

2370 

2920 

3340 

4100 

18 

1300 

1850 

2630 

3200 

3740 

4600 

5270 

6470 

20 

u 

1760 

2450 

3450 

4180 

4860 

5980 

6850 

8410 

The  maximum  rainfall  is  about  one  inch  per  hour  (except  during  very  heavy 
storms) — equal  to  22,633  gallons  an  hour  for  each  acre,  or  377  gallons  a minute  per 
acre.  


Avoid  shame,  but  do  not  seek  glory — nothing  so  expensive  as 
glory. — Sidney  Smith. 

That  this  nation,  under  God,  shall  have  a new  birth  of  free- 
dom, and  that  government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  for  the 
people,  shall  not  perish  from  the  earth. — Abraham  Lin- 
coln. 


3G7 


HINTS  FOR  ROOFERS. 

The  average  width  of  a shingle  is  four  inches.  Hence,  when 
shingles  are  laid  four  in.  to  the  weather  each  shingle  averages  i6 
sq.  in.,  and  900  are  required  for  a square  of  roofing  (100  sq.  ft). 
If  43^  in.  to  the  weather,  800;  5 in.,  720;  534  in.,  655;  6 in.,  600. 
In  hip-roofs,  where  the  shingles  are  cut  more  or  less  to  fit  the 
roof,  should  be  added  to  these  figures. 

One  thousand  shingles  laid  four  inches  to  the  weather  will  re- 
quire five  pounds  of  shingle  nails.  Six  pounds  of  nails  will 
lay  1000  split  pine  shingles. 

A carpenter  will  carry  up  and  lay  on  the  roof  from  1,500  to 
2,000  shingles  per  day,  or  two  squares  to  two  squares  and  a half 
of  plain  gable-roofing. 

The  pitch  of  a slated  roof  should  be  about  one  in  height  to 
four  in  length.  The  usual  lap  is  about  3 in.,  sometimes  4 in. 
Each  slate  should  be  fastened  by  two  slate  nails,  either  of 
galvanized  iron,  copper  or  zinc.  On  roofs  of  gas-houses  the  nails 
should  be  of  copper  or  yellow  metal. 

The  sides  and  bottom  edges  of  roof  slates  should  be  trimmed, 
and  the  nail-holes  punched  as  near  the  head  as  possible.  When 
slates  are  not  of  uniform  size  they  should  be  sorted,  and  the 
smallest  placed  near  the  ridge. 

In  a first-class  slate  roof  the  top  course  on  ridge,  and  the  slate 
from  two  to  four  feet  from  gutters,  and  one  foot  each  way  from 
valleys  and  hips,  should  be  bedded  in  elastic  cement. 

Roof-boards  for  slate  roofs  should  be  covered  with  one  or  two 

thicknesses  of  tarred  felt  roofing  paper  before  slates  are  laid.  Dry  or  rosin-sized  felt 
should  not  be  used  on  roofs. 


:Xiimtier  of  Slates  per  Square* 


Size  in 
Inches. 

Slates  per 
Square. 

Size  in 
Inches. 

Slates  per 
Square. 

Size  in 
Inches. 

Slates  per 
Square. 

6x12 

533 

8 X 16  ’ 

277 

12x20 

141 

7x12 

457 

9x16 

246 

14x20 

121 

8x12 

400 

10x16 

221 

11x22 

137 

9x12 

355 

9x18 

213 

12x22 

126 

7x14 

374 

10x18 

192 

14  X 22 

108 

8x14 

327 

12x18 

160 

12x24 

114 

9x14 

291 

10x20 

169 

14x24 

98 

10x14 

261 

11x20 

154 

16x24 

86 

Number  of  Sliingles  Required  in  a Roof. 

To  the  square  foot,  it  takes  9 if  exposed  4 inches;  8 if  exposed 

454  inches,  and  7 1-5  if  exposed  5 inches  to  the  weather. 

Find  the  number  of  shingles  required  to  cover  a roof  38  ft.  long 
and  the  rafters  on  each  side  14  ft.  Shingles  exposed  454  inches. 

28X38=1064  (sq.  ft.)  X3=8512  shingles.  Ans. 
To  find  the  length  of  rafters,  giving  the  roof  one-third  pitch, 

take  three-fifths  of  the  width  of  the  building.  If  the  building  is  30  feet  wide,  they 
must  be  18  feet  long,  exclusive  of  projection. 

A tin  roof,  properly  put  on,  and  kept  painted,  will  last  thirty 

368 


HINTS  TOR  ROOFRRS. 


years.  It  ought  not  to  be  painted  for  the  first  time  until  it  has 
been  on  about  thirty  days,  so  as  to  get  the  grease  off  the  tin,  and 
all  the  rosin  should  be  carefully  scraped  off. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary,  on  buildings  where  there  is  much 
dampness  or  steam,  as  stables,  blacksmith  shops,  round-houses, 
etc.,  to  paint  the  roof  tin  one  coat  on  the  under  side  before 
laying. 

Tin  roofs  should  be  laid  with  cleats,  and  not  by  driving  the 
nails  through  the  tin  itself. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  tin — “bright  tin,”  the  coating  of  which 
is  all  tin,  that  is,  the  tin  proper;  and  “tern,”  “leaded,”  or  “roof- 
ing” tin,  the  coating  of  which  is  a composition,  part  tin  and  part 
lead.  This  last  is  a little  cheaper,  and  will  not  fust  any  quicker, 
but  the  sulphur  in  soft  coal  smoke  eats  through  the  “leaded”  coat- 
ing sooner  than  through  the  “tinned.” 

There  are  two  sizes  of  tin,  10x14  and  14x20,  and  two  grades  of 
thickness — IC  light,  and  IX,  heavy.  For  a steep  roof  (one-sixth 
pitch  or  over)  the  IC  14x20  tin  (“leaded”  if  high  up  Where  little 
smoke  will  get  to  it;  “bright”  if  low  down),  put  on  with  a stand- 
ing groove,  and  with  the  cross-beams  put  together  with  a double, 
lock,  makes  as  good  a roof  as  can  be  made.  For  flat  roofs  IX 
10x14  “light”  is  best,  laid  with  cleats,  but  the  others  make  good 
roofs  and  anj^  of  them  will  last  25  years  at  least. 

Number  of  Square  Feet  a Box  of  Roofing  Tin  Wilt. 
Cover. — For  flat  seam  roofing,  using  j^-inch  locks,  a box  of 
“14x20”  size  will  cover  about  192  square  feet,  and  for  standing- 
seam,  using  %-inch  locks  and  turning  and  inches  edges, 
making  i-inch  standing  seams,  it  will  lay  about  168  square  feet. 

For  flat  seam  roofing,  using  J^-inch  locks,  a box  of  “28x20” 
size  will  cover  about  399  square  feet,  and  for  standing  seam, 
using  %-inch  locks  and  turning  and  ij^  inches  edges,  making 
I -inch  standing  seams,  it  will  lay  about  365  square  feet. 

Every  box  of  roofing  plates  (IC  or  IX  “14x20”  or  “28x20” 
sizes)  contains  112  sheets. 

' Facts  A1>out  Oaso 

A cubic  foot  of  good  gas,  from  a jet  one  thirty-third  of  an  inch 
in  diameter  and  a flame  of  four  inches,  will  burn  65  minutes. 

Internal  lights  require  four  cubic  feet,  and  external  lights 
about  five  cubic  feet,  per  hour.  Large  or  Argand  burners  will 
require  from  six  to  ten  feet. 

In  distilling  56  pounds  of  coal,  the  volume  of  gas  produced  in 
cubic  feet,  when  the  distillation  was  effected  in  three  hours,  was 
41.3;  in  seven  hours,  37.5;  in  twenty  hours,  33.5;  in  twenty-five 
hours,  31.7. 

A retort  produces  about  600  cubic  feet  of  gas  in  five  hours, 
with  a charge  of  about  one  and  a half  cwt.  of  coal,  or  2,800  cubic 
feet  in  twenty -four  hours.  [369] 


PAINTING  AND  GLAZING. 

Painters’  work  is  generally  estimated  by  the  square  yard,  and 
the  cost  depends  on  the  number  of  coats  applied,  quality  of  work 
and  material  to  be  painted. 

One  coat,  or  f riming^  will  take,  per  loo  yards  of  painting,  20 
pounds  of  lead  and  4 gallons  of  oil.  Two-coat  work,  40  pounds 
of  lead  and  4 gallons  of  oil.  Three-coat,  the  same  quantity  as 
two-coat;  so  that  a fair  estimate  for  100  yards  of  three-coat  work 
would  be  100  pounds  of  lead  and  16  gallons  of  oil. 

One  gallon  priming  color  will  cover  50  superficial  yards;  white 
zinc,  50  yds.;  white  paint,  44  yds.;  lead  color,  50  yds.;  black  paint, 
50  yds.;  stone  color,  44  yds.;  yellow  paint,  44  yds.;  blue  color,  45 
yds.;  green  paint,  45  yds.;  bright  emerald  green,  25  yds.;  bronze 
green,  75  yds. 

One  pound  of  paint  will  cover  about  4 superficial  yards  the 
first  coat,  and  about  6 each  additional  coat.  One  pound  of  putty, 
for  stopping,  every  20  yards.  One  gallon  of  tar  and  i lb.  of  pitch 
will  cover  12  yards  superficial  the  first  coat,  and  17  yards  each 
additional  coat.  A square  yard  of  new  brick  wall  requires,  for  the 
first  coat  of  paint  in  oil,  ^ lb.;  for  the  second,  3 lbs.;  for  the 
third,  4 lbs. 

A day’s  work  on  the  outside  of  a building  is  100  yards  of  first 
coat,  and  80  yds.  of  either  second  or  third  coat.  An  ordinary 
door,  including  casings,  will,  on  both  sides,  make  8 to  10  3'ds.  of 
painting,  or  about  5 3^ds.  to  a door  without  the  casings.  An  or- 
dinary window  makes  about  2}^  or  3 j^ds. 

Window  Glass  is  sold  by  the  box,  which  contains,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  50  sq.  ft.,  whatever  the  size  of  the  panes.  The  thick- 
ness of  ordinary",  or  “single  thick”  window  glass  is  about  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch,  and  of  “double  thick”  nearly  in.  The 
tensile  strength  of  common  glass  varies  from  2,000  to  3,000  lbs. 
per  sq.  in.,  and  its  crushing  strength  from  6,000  to  10,000  lbs. 

Where  Skylights  are  glazed  with  clear  or  double  thick  glass, 
it  may  be  psed  in  lengths  of  from  16  to  30  in.  by  a width  of  from 
9 to  15  in.  A lap  of  at  least  an  inch  and  a half  is  necessary  for 
all  joints.  This  is  the  cheapest  mode  of  glazing.  The  best, 
however,  for  skylight  purposes  is  fluted  or  rough  plate  glass. 
The  following  thicknesses  are  recommended  as  proportionate  to 
sizes:  12x48,  3-16  in.;  15x60,  34  20x100,  % in.;  94x156,  3^  in. 

Polished  French  plate  window  glass,  which  is  the 
highest  grade  of  window  glass  in  the  market,  may  be  obtained 
in  lights  ranging  in  size  from  one  inch  square  upwards.  Owing 
to  the  extra  cost  of  rolling  large  lights  the  price  of  these  per 
square  foot  is  sometimes  double  that  of  smaller  lights. 

Faith  is  the  substance  of  things  hoped  for,  the  evidence  of 
things  unseen. — New  Testament. 

370 


PANES  OF  WINDOW  GLASS  IN  A BOX  OF  50  FEET. 


Size, 

in  inches. 

Panes 

in 

box. 

Size, 

in  inches. 

Panes 

in 

box. 

Size, 

in  inches. 

Panes 

in 

box. 

Size, 

in  inches. 

Panes 

in 

box. 

6x  8 

150 

12x19 

32 

16x20 

23 

24x44 

7 

7x  9 

115 

12  X 20 

30 

16x22 

20 

24  X 50 

6 

8 X 10 

90 

12x21 

29 

16  X 24 

19 

24  X 56 

5 

8x11 

82 

12  x 22 

27 

16  X 30 

15 

26  X 36 

8 

8x12 

75 

12x20 

26  ' 

16x86 

12 

26x40 

7 

9x10 

80 

12x24 

25 

16  X 40 

11 

26x48 

6 

9x  11 

72 

13  x 14 

40 

18x20 

20 

26x54 

5 

9x12 

67 

13  X 15 

37 

18x22 

18 

28x34 

8 

9x13 

62 

13x16 

35 

18  x24 

17 

28  X 40 

6 

9 x 14 

57 

13x17 

83 

18x26 

15 

28x46 

6 

9 X 15 

53 

13x18 

81 

18  X 34 

12 

28  X 50 

5 

9x16 

50 

13x19 

29 

18x36 

11 

30x40 

6 

10x10 

72 

13x20 

28 

18x40 

10 

30x44 

4 

10x12 

60 

13x21 

26 

18x4t 

9 

30x48 

5 

10x13 

55 

13x22 

25 

20  X 22 

16 

30x54 

5 

10x14 

52 

13  X 24 

23 

20x24 

15 

32x42 

5 

10  x 15 

43 

14x  15 

34 

20  x25 

14 

32x44 

5 

10  X 16 

45 

14x16 

82 

20x26 

14 

32x46 

5 

10x17 

42 

14x18 

29 

20  X 28 

13 

32x48 

5 

10x18 

40 

14x19 

27 

20  X 80 

12 

32x50 

4 

11x11 

59 

14x20 

26 

20x34 

11 

32  X 54 

4 

11x12 

55 

14x22 

23 

20  X 36 

10 

32x56 

4 

11x13 

50 

14x24 

22 

20x40 

9 

32  X 60 

4 

11x14 

47 

14  X 28 

19 

20  X 44 

8 

34  X 40 

5 

11  X 15 

44 

14x32 

16 

20  X 50 

7 

34x44 

5 

11x16 

41 

14x36 

14 

22x24 

14 

34x46 

5 

11x17 

39 

14  X 40 

13 

22  X 26 

13 

34x50 

4 

11  xl8 

36 

15  X 16 

30 

22x28 

12 

34x52 

4 

12x12  ■ 

50 

15x18 

27 

22x86 

9 

34x56 

4 

12x13 

46 

15  x 20 

24 

22x40 

8 

36x44 

5 

12  X 14 

43 

15  x 22 

22 

22  X 50 

7 

36  X 50 

4 

12x15 

40 

15x24 

20 

24  X 2S 

11 

36  X 56 

4 

12x16 

38 

15  X 30 

16 

24  X 30 

10 

36  X 60 

3 

12x17 

35 

15  X 32 

15 

24  X 32 

10 

36x64 

3 

12x18 

33 

16  X 18 

25 

24  X 36 

9 

40x60 

3 

CARPENTERS’  WORK  AND  MEASURING. 


What  is  called  Naked  Flooring  in  carpentry  are  the  joists 
which  support  the  flooring  boards  and  ceiling  of  a room.  There 
are  different  kinds,  but  they  may  all  be  comprised  in  the  three 
following — viz.:  single  joisted  floors,  double  floors,  and  framed 
floors. 

A single  joisted  floor  consists  of  only  one  series  of  joists; 
sometimes  every  third  or  fourth  joist  is  made  deeper, with  ceiling 
joists  nailed  across  at  right  angles.  This  is  a good  method,  as 
ceilings  stand  better  than  when  the  laths  are  nailed  to  the  joists 
alone. 

A double  floor  consists  of  binding,  bridging,  and  ceiling  joists; 
the  binding  joists  are  the  chief  support  of  the  floor,  and  the 
bridging  joists  are  nailed  upon  the  upper  side  of  them;  the  ceiling 
joists  are  either  notched  to  the  under  side  or  framed  between 

871 


CARPENTERS''  WORK  AND  MEASURING, 


with  chased  mortises.  The  best  method  is  to  notch  them. 

Framed  floors  difter  from  double  floors  only  in  having  the 
binding  joists  framed  into  large  pieces  of  timber  called 
girders. 

Single  joisted  floors,  when  the  bearing  exceeds  ten  feet,  should 
be  cross-bridged  between  the  joists  to  prevent  them  from  turning 
or  twisting  sideways,  and  also  to  stiffen  the  floor;  when  the 
bearing  exceeds  fifteen  feet,  two  rows  will  be  necessary,  and  so 
on,  adding  another  row  for  each  five  feet  bearing. 

Single  joisting  may  be  used  to  any  extent  for  which  timber 
can  be  got  deep  enough;  but  where  it  is  desirable  to  have  a per- 
fect ceiling,  the  bearing  should  not  exceed  i8  ft.,  nor  the  distance 
from  center  to  center  be  more  than  i6  inches;  otherwise  the 
bearing  for  the  laths  become  too  long  to  produce  good  work. 

To  find  the  depth  of  a joist,  the  length  of  bearing  and  the  thick- 
ness being  given — 

Rule. — Divide  the  square  of  the  length  in  feet  by  the  thick- 
ness in  inches,  and  the  cube  root  of  the  quotient,  multiplied  by 

2.2  for  pine,  or  2.3  for  oak,  will  be  the  depth  in  inches. 

Example. — Suppose  a joist  whose  bearing  is  10  feet,  and  the 

thickness  two  inches,  what  will  be  the  depth? 

Here  10X10=100,  divided  by  2,  the  thickness=50,  the  cube 
root  of  which  is  3,684X2.2=8. loqS^equals  8 inches,  the  depth. 

To  find  the  scantlings  of  joists  for  different  bearings  from  5 
to  20  feet,  at  several  thicknesses,  refer  to  the  table  on  following 
page. 

Girders  are  the  chief  support  of  a framed  fioor,  and  their 
depth  is  often  limited  by  the  size  of  the  timber;  therefore  the 
method  of  finding  the  scantling  may  be  divided  in  two 
cases — 

Cask  i. — To  find  the  depth  of  a girder  when  the  length 
of  bearing  and  thickness  of  girder  are  given. 

Rule. — Divide  the  square  of  the  length  in  feet  by  the  thick- 
ness in  inches,  and  the  cube  root  of  the  quotient,  multiplied  by 

4.2  for  pine,  or  4.34  for  oak,  will  give  the  depth  required  in 
inches. 

Case  2. — To  find  the  thickness  when  the  length  of  bearing 
and  depth  are  given. 

Rule. — Divide  the  square  of  the  length  in  feet  by  the  cube  or 
the  depth  in  inches,  and  the  quotient  multiplied  by  74  for  pine, 
or  by  82  for  oak,  will  give  the  thickness  in  inches. 

In  these  rules  the  girders  are  supposed  to  be  ten  feet  apart, 
and  this  distance  should  never  be  exceeded,  but  should  the  dis- 
tance apart  be  more  or  less  than  10  feet,  the  thickness  should  be 
made  proportionate  thereto. 


372 


CARPENTERS^  WORK  AND  MEASURING. 


I Length  of 

1 bearing  in 

1 Feet. 

1 Thickness 

1 2 inches. 

I Thickness 

1 2X  inches. 

I Thickness 

1 3 inches. 

52 

s 1 

o .S 

IS 

1 Thickness 

1 4 inches. 

c 

c/5 

a 

c 

tA 

t •! 

c 

■5 

c 

cn 

•5  ^ 

S'  C 

Q - 

0)'  c 

Q •'- 

(U  c 

Q 

Q -2 

S’  c 
Q - 

5 

5H 

4K 

% 

4 

6 

5 

4M 

7 

6 

5K 

6K 

5 

8 

7 

6K 

5% 

5K 

9 

7M 

6% 

6 

5% 

10 

8 

7K 

7 

6^ 

6K 

11 

8% 

8 

7K 

7 

12 

9)^ 

8>^ 

8 

7>^ 

13 

9^ 

9 

8 

14 

10 

9)^ 

9 

8K 

8 

15 

lOK 

9% 

. 91^ 

m 

8K 

16 

11 

10>^ 

m 

9M 

8% 

17 

lOK 

lOK 

9X 

9K 

18 

12 

IIM 

10 

19 

12)^ 

11>^ 

lOK 

lOK 

10 

20 

13 

12 

llJi 

lOM 

1034 

When  the  breadth  of  girders  is  considerable  it  is  an  excellent 
method  to  saw  them  down  the  middle  and  bolt  them  together, 
with  the  sawn  sides  outward. 

Partitions  unsupported  from  underneath  the  floors  should  be 
supported  from  the  walls  by  means  of  a simple  truss.  This  can 
be  made  by  setting  two  pieces  of  scantling  into  the  walls  on 
either  side  at  the  floor  to  abut  against  each  other  at  the  ceiling 
or  against  a collar-beam  over  the  doors.  This  plan  will  obviate 
the  sinking  of  floors  so  often  seen  under  partitions. 


Weight  of  Lumber,  Etc.,  Dry. 

Flooring — Dressed  and  matched,  per  1,000  ft 1,800  lbs. 

Siding — Dressed  per  1,000  ft 800  “ 

Ceiling — ^ inch  thick,  per  1,000  ft 800  “ 

“ ■“  “ “ “ ; 900  “ 

Boards— Dressed  one  side,  per  1,000  ft 2,100 

“ and  dimensions,  rough,  per  1,000  ft 2,500  “ 

Shingles — per  1,000 250 

’Lath — per  1,000  pieces 500  “ 

Pickets — Dressed,  per  1,000  pieces 1,800  “ 

“ Rough,  per  1,000  pieces 2,500  “ 

373 


WEAR  ANR  TEAK  OF  BUIERINO  IRATERIAES. 

The  figures  given  below  are  averages  deduced  from  replies 
made  by  eighty-three  competent  builders  in  twenty-seven  cities 
and  towns  of  Western  States: 


Material  in 

Buildings. 

Frame 

Dwellings. 

Brick 
Dwellings. 
(Shingle  roof) 

Frame 

Stores. 

Brick  Stores. 
(Shingle  roof) 

Average  Life,  years. 

Percentage  of  Depre- 
ciation per  Annum. 

Average  Life,  years. 

Percentage  of  Depre- 

ciation per  Annum. 

Average  Life,  years. 

Percentage  of  Depre- 

ciation per  Annum. 

Average  Life,  years. 

Percentage  of  Depre- 

ciation per  Annum. 

Brick 

75 

66 

Plastering 

20 

5 

30 

/o 

3K 

ie 

6 

30 

■*-/2 

3K 

Painting,  outside. . . . 

5 

20 

7 

14 

5 

20 

6 

16 

Painting,  inside 

7 

14 

7 

14 

5 

20 

6 

16 

Shingles 

16 

*6 

16 

6 

16 

6 

16 

6 

Cornice 

40 

40 

2>^ 

30 

3K 

40 

2>^ 

Weather-boarding  . . 

30 

3K 

30 

3K 

Sheathing 

50 

2 

50 

’2 

40 

2>^ 

50 

*2 

Flooring 

20 

5 

20 

5 

13 

8 

13 

8 

Doors,  complete. . . 

30 

3K 

30 

3K 

25 

4 

30 

3K 

Windows,  complete. 

30 

3K 

30 

3K 

25 

4 

30 

3K 

Stairs  and  newel .... 

30 

3K 

30 

3K 

20 

5 

20 

5 

Base 

40 

2X 

40 

30 

3K 

30 

3K 

Inside  blinds 

30 

3K 

30 

3K 

30 

3K 

30 

3K 

Building  hardware. . 

20 

5 

20 

5 

13 

8 

13 

8 

Piazzas  and  porches. 

20 

5 

20 

5 

20 

5 

20 

5 

Outside  blinds  . . . 

16 

6 

16 

6 

16 

6 

16 

6 

Sills  and  first  floor 

joints  

25 

4 

40 

2K 

25 

4 

30 

3K 

Dimension  lumber.  . 

50 

2 

75 

IK 

40 

21^ 

66 

IK 

In  Java  the  “Valley  of  the  Upas  Tree”  is  sometimes  called 
the  “Valley  of  Death,”  and  its  deadly  influence  was  formerly 
ascribed  to  the  malignant  properties  of  a peculiar  vegetable  pro- 
duction of  the  island,  called  the  “ upas  tree,”  which  especially 
flourishes  in  this  locality.  Recent  travelers,  however,  declare 
that  accounts  of  the  fatality  attending  a passage  of  this  famous 
valley  have  been  greatly  exaggerated. 

A MAN  may  fish  with  the  worm  that  hath  eat  of  a king,  and 
eat  of  the  fish  that  hath  fed  of  that  worm. — Shakespeare, 

374 


Sizes  of  Chaips  and  Desks  for  Schools. 

Desks  for  Single  Scholar,  2 ft.  long  ; For  Two  Scholars,  3 ft.  10  in. 


Age  of  Scholar. 

Height  of  Chair. 

Height  of  Desk 
(next  scholar). 

Space  Occupied  by 
Desk  and  Chair. 

16  to  18  vears. 

inches. 

29K  inches. 

2 

feet  9 

inches. 

14  to  16 

(( 

u 

28  » 

2 

9 

u 

12  to  14 

u 

153^ 

tt 

27K  “ 

2 

(( 

8 

tt 

10  to  12 

(t 

UK 

tt 

26K  “ 

2 

u 

7 

tt 

8 to  10 

(( 

13K 

tt 

25K  “ 

2 

tt 

5 

tt 

7 to  8 

u 

12K 

tt 

24  “ 

2 

tt 

4 

(( 

6 to  7 

tt 

UK 

It 

22)^  “ 

2 

tt 

3 

(( 

5 to  6 

lOK 

tt 

21  “ 

2 

tt 

2 

tt 

4 to  5 

9K 

tt 

19 

2 

tt 

0 

tt 

WEIGHT  OF  FLOORS,  AND  THE  LOAD  UPON  SAME. 

The  dead  weight  of  a fire-proof  floor  will  average  for  the 
arches,  concrete,  plastering  and  flooring,  70  lbs.  per  sq.  foot.  The 
live  weight,  equal  to  a dense  crowd  of  people,  80  lbs.  per  sq. 
foot,  or  a total  for  an  office  building  of  150  lbs.  per  sq.  foot. 

The  following  loads  are  exclusive  of  weight  of  arches  and 
beams : 


Dense  crowd  of  people  . . . . 

80  lbs. 

per 

sq. 

foot 

For  floors  of  houses 

50 

tt 

tt 

tt 

tt 

Theaters  and  churches 

80 

tt 

tt 

tt 

tt 

Ball  rooms 

90 

tt 

(( 

tt 

tt 

Ware  houses 

. . . . .250 

tt 

tt 

tt 

tt 

Factories 

. . . . 200  to  450 

tt 

tt 

tt 

tt 

Snow  30  inches  deep 

15 

tt 

tt 

it 

a 

Brick  walls 

112 

tt 

tt 

cubic 

u 

Stone  (Chicago  lime  stone,  dressed) 160 

tt 

tt 

tt 

(( 

The  dead  weight  of  a wooden  floor,  including  wood  joists: 
Double  flooring  and  plastering  will  average  .25  lbs.  per  sq.  foot 

If  deafened 35  “ “ “ “ 

Stud  partition  of  wood  plastered  each  side.  . .20  “ “ “ “ 

In  estimating  the  weight  of  a flat  ceiling  and  roof  it  will  be 
safe  to  assume  the  following: 

Ceiling  of  wooden  construction 15  lbs  per  sq.  foot. 

Ceiling  of  iron  construction 25  to  65  “ “ “ “ 

Roof  of  wooden  construction  45  “ “ “ “ 

Roof  of  iron  construction  65  to  100  “ “ “ “ 

The  weight  of  roof  includes  the  wind  pressure  and  snow. 
Strength  of  Piers. — Granite  will  sustain  40  tons  per  sq. 
ft.;  Berea  (sand  stone),  30  tons  per  sq.  ft.;  limestone  (mag- 
nesium), 29  tons  per  sq.  ft.;  Portland  (sand  stone),  13  tons  per  sq. 
ft.;  brick  in  cement,  3 tons  per  sq.  ft.;  rubble  masonrv,  2 tons  per 
sq.  ft.;  lime,  cement  foundation,  2)/^  tons  per  sq.  ft. 

375 


WEIGHT  OF  VARIOUS  MATERIALS. 

Weight  of  Stones.— -Granite,  (averages)  per  cubic  foot,  170 
lbs.;  limestone  (magnesium),  144  lbs.;  Berea  (sand  stone),  140 
lbs.;  free  stone,  140  lbs.;  gypsum,  natural  state,  140  lbs. 

One  ton  of  vein  marble  is  13  cubic  feet;  of  statuary  marble, 
granite,  13)^;  of  Berea  stone,  14X;  limestone,  mag- 
nesium, 13%. 

Weight  OF  Masonry. — Granite,  per  cubic  foot,  1 60  lbs.; 
of  Berea  stone  range,  140;  of  limestone  rubble,  140;  of  brick, 
dry,  1 15;  of  brick,  dry  (press),  130;  of  brick,  dry  (fire),  150;  of 
brick  masonrj^  in  mortar,  110;  of  brick  masonry  cement,  112. 

Weight  of  Marble  Slabs. — One-half  inch  thick,  per  sq. 
foot,  7.17  lbs.;  ^ inch  thick,  10.75;  ^ i^^h  thick,  14.32;  inch 
thick,  17.92;  134  inch  thick,  21.05;  inch  thick,  25.08;  2 inch 
thick,  28.67;  2)^  inch  thick,  35.83. 

Cement  and  Lime. — One  bushel  of  Portland  cement  weighs 
96  lbs.;  of  Rosendale,  70;  of  Louisville,  62;  of  quicklime  well 
shaken,  80;  of  quick  lime,  loose,  70. 

Iron  and  Wood. — One  cubic  foot  of  wrought  iron  weighs 
480  lbs.;  of  cast  iron,  450;  of  oak  (seasoned),  48;  of  pine  (sea- 
soned), 36. 

Coal. — One  bushel  of  Anthracite  weighs  86  lbs.;  of  Bitumin- 
ous, 80;  of  coke  (Connellsville),  40;  of  charcoal  (hardwood)  30. 

Miscellaneous  Weights. — Per  cubic  foot:  Ordinary  quick 
lime,  53  lbs.;  old  mortar,  90;  new  mortar,  well  tempered,  115; 
new  mortar,  no;  river  sand  (average),  107;  river  sand  (screened), 
95;  clay  with  gravel,  130;  earth — vegetable,  90;  earth — loamy, 
100;  earth — semi  fluid,  no. 


San  Marino,  in  Italy,  on  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  is  the 
oldest  Republic  in  the  world.  It  is,  next  to  Monaco,  the  smallest 
State  in  Europe.  The  exact  date  of  the  establishment  of  this 
Republic  is  not  known,  but  according  to  tradition,  it  was  in  the 
fourth  century,  by  Marinus,  a Dalmatian  hermit,  and  has  ever 
since  remained  independent.  It  is  mountainous,  and  contains 
four  or  five  villages.  The  word  “liberty”  is  inscribed  on  its 
capitol. 

Is  life  so  dear,  or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be  purchased  at  the 
price  of  chains  and  slavery.^  Forbid  it.  Almighty  God!  I know 
not  what  course  others  may  take;  but  as  for  me,  give  me  liberty 
or  give  me  death! — Patrick  Henry. 

The  law  is  a sort  of  hocus-pocus  science,  that  smiles  in  yer 
face  while  it  picks  yer  pocket;  and  the  glorious  uncertainty  of  it 
is  of  mair  use  to  the  professors  than  the  justice  of  M.—Macklin. 

Knowledge  is  of  two  kinds:  we  know  a subject  ourselves  or 
we  know  where  we  can  find  information  upon  it. — Jo]i7tso7i, 

376 


Crushing  and  Tensile  Strength,  in  Lbs.,  per  Sq.  Inch 
of  Natural  and  Artificial  Stones. 


DESCRIPTION. 

Weight 

per 

Cubic  ft. 
in  lbs. 

Crushing  Force. 
Lbs.  per 
Square  Inch. 

164 

8,400  to  10,914 
15,300 
3,522 
1,088  . 
3,319 

5,340 

17,000 

18,941 

12,624 

10,382 

3,216 

9,681 

9,300 

808 

166 

PreestnnPj  Relleville 

Freestone,  Caen 

Freestone,  Connecticut 

Sandstone,  Acquia  Creek,  used  for  Capi- 
tol, Washington 

T.imestone,  Magnesian,  Grafton,  111 

Marble,  Hastings,  N.  Y 

Marble,  Italian 

M?^i*ble,  Stockbridge,  City  Hall,  N.  Y.. 

Marble  Statuary 

Marble,  Veined 

Slate  

165 

Rrick,  Fed  

135.5 

Brick,  Pale  Red 

130.3 

562 

Brick,  Common 

800  to  4,000 
6,222  to  14,216 
2,177 

521 

Brick,  Machine  Pressed 

Brick,  Stock 

Brick-work,  set  in  Cement,  bricks  not  very 
hard 

Brick,  Masonry,  Common 

500  to  800 

Cement,  Portland 

1,000  to  8,300 
1,280 

Cement,  Portland,  Cement  1,  Sand  1. . . . 

Cement,  Roman 

'342 

Mortar 

120  to  240 

Crown  Glass 

31,000 

TENSION. 

427  to  711 

Portland  Cement 

Portland  Cement,  with  Sand 

92  to  284 

Glass,  Plate 

9,420 

50 

Mortar 

Plaster  of  Paris 

72 

Slate 

11,000 

Error  of  opinion  may  be  tolerated  where  reason  is  left  free 
to  combat  it. — Thomas  Jefferson. 

Virtue  is  like  precious  odors,  most  fragrant  when  they  are 
incensed  or  crushed. — Lord  Bacon, 

377 


WEIGHT  OF  CAST  IRON  COLUMNS, 

PER  LINEAL  FOOT  OF  PLAIN  SHAFT. 


THICKNESS  OF  METAL. 


3 

34  in. 

%in. 

3^  in. 

%in. 

J^in. 

1 in. 

13^  in. 

l^in. 

IK  in. 

l^in. 

2 in. 

2 

4.3 

6.0 

7.4 

8.4 

9.2 

9.7 

9.8 

5.5 

7.8 

9.8 

11.5 

12.9 

14.0 

14.7 

3 

6.8 

9.7 

12.3 

14.6 

16.6 

18.3 

19.6 

33^ 

8.0 

11.5 

14.7 

17.6 

20.3 

22.6 

24.6 

4 

9.2 

13  3 

17.2 

20.7 

23.9 

26.8 

29.5 

43^ 

10.4 

15.2 

19.6 

23.8 

27.6 

31.1 

31.4 

37.3 

39.9 

5 

11.7 

17.0 

22.1 

26  9 

31.3 

35.4 

39  3 

42.8 

46.0 

53^ 

12.9 

18.9 

24.5 

29.9 

35.0 

39.7 

44.2 

48.3 

52.2 

6 

14.1 

20.7 

27.8 

33.0 

38.7 

44  0 

49.1 

53  9 

58  3 

63^ 

15.3 

22.6 

29.5 

36.1 

42.3 

48.3 

54.0 

59.4 

64.4 

7 

16.6 

24.4 

31.9 

39.1 

46.0 

52.6 

58  9 

64  9 

70.6 

81.0 

73^ 

17.8 

26.2 

34.4 

42.2 

49.7 

56.9 

63.8 

7074 

76.7 

88.4 

8 

19.0 

28.1 

36.8 

45.3 

53.4 

61.2 

68.7 

75.9 

82.8 

95.7 

83^ 

20.2 

29.9 

39.3 

48.3 

57.1 

65.5 

73.6 

81.5 

89.0 

103.1 

9 

21.5 

31.8 

41.7 

51.4 

60.8 

69  8 

78  5 

87  0 

95.1 

110.5 

9K 

22.7 

33.6 

44.2 

54.5 

64.4 

74.1 

83.5 

92.5 

101.2 

117.8 

133.2 

10 

23.9 

35.4 

46.6 

57.5 

68.1 

78.4 

88.4 

98.0 

107.4 

125.2 

141.7 

157.1 

103^ 

25.2 

37.3 

49.1 

60.6 

71.8 

82.7 

93.3 

103.5 

113.5 

132.5 

150.3 

166.9 

11 

26.4 

39.1 

51.6 

63.7 

75.5 

87.0 

98.2 

109.1 

119.7 

139.9 

158.9 

176.7 

IIK 

27.6 

41.0 

54.8 

66.7 

79.2 

91.3 

103.1 

114.6 

125.8 

147.3 

167.5 

186.5 

12 

28.8 

42.8 

56.5 

69.8 

82.8 

95.6 

108.0 

120.1 

131.9 

154.6 

176.1 

196.3 

123^ 

44.6 

58.9 

72.9 

86.5 

99.9 

112.9 

125.6 

138.1 

162.0 

184.7 

206.2 

13 

46.5 

61.4 

75.9 

90.2 

104.2 

117.8 

131.2 

144.2 

169.4 

193.3 

216.0 

133^ 

63.8 

79.0 

93.9 

108.5 

122.7 

136.7 

150.3 

176.7 

201.9 

225.8 

14 

66.3 

82.1 

97  6 

112.8 

127.6 

142.2 

156.5 

184.1 

210.5 

235.6 

143^ 

68.7 

85.2 

101.2 

117.0 

132.5 

147.7 

162.6 

191.4 

219.1 

245.4 

15 

71.2 

88.2 

104  9 

121.3 

137.5 

153.2 

168.7 

198.8 

227.6 

255.2 

16 

76.1 

94.3 

112.3 

129.9 

147.3 

164.3 

181.0 

213.5 

244.8 

274.9 

17 

81.0 

100.5 

119.7 

138.5 

157.1 

175.3 

193.3 

228.3 

262.0 

294.5 

18 

85.9 

106.6 

127.0 

147.1 

166.9 

186.4 

205.6 

243.0 

279.2 

314.1 

19 

90.8 

112.8 

134  4 

155.7 

176.7 

197.4 

217.8 

257.7 

296.4 

a33.8 

20 

95.7 

118.9 

141.7 

164.3 

186.5 

208.5 

230.1 

274.4 

313.5 

353.4 

Increase  in  Weight  for  1-2  In.  Increase  in  Diameter. 


K in. 

Kin 

Kin. 

Kin. 

K in. 

K in 

1 in. 

IKin. 

IKin- 

IKin. 

l^in. 

2 in. 

1.2 

1.8 

2.5 

3.1 

3.7 

4.3 

4.9 

5.5 

6.1 

7.4 

8.6 

9.8 

378 


WEIGHT  OF  CAST  IRON  BATES. 


Diameter, 

Inches. 

Weight, 

Lbs. 

Diameter, 

Inches. 

Weight, 

Lbs. 

Diameter, 

Inches. 

Weight, 

Lbs. 

2 

1.09 

5 

17  04 

8 

69.81 

2>^ 

2 13 

22.68 

83.73 

3 

3.68 

6 

29.45 

9 

99.40 

5.84 

6>^ 

37  44 

10 

136.35 

4 

8 73 

7 

46.76 

11 

181.48 

4)^ 

12  42 

7>^ 

57.52 

12 

235.65 

To  Find  the  Weight  of  Cast  Iron  Balls  When  the 
Diameter  is  Given — Rule:  Multiply  the  cube  of  the  diameter 
by  .1377- 

To  Find  the  Diameter  of  Cast  Iron  Balls  When  the 
Weight  is  Given — Rule:  Multiply  the  cube  root  of  the  weight 
by  1.936. 

To  Find  the  Weight  of  a Spherical  Shell — From  the 
weight  of  a ball  of  the  outer  diameter  subtract  the  weight  of  one 
of  the  inner  diameter. 

Cast  Iron — Assumed  Weight  in  Estimating 
A cubic  foot  .....=  450  lbs. 

A square  foot,  i inch  thick  . . . . “ 38  “ 

A bar  i inch  square  and  i foot  long  . . = 3*125  “ 

TABJLE  OF  WEIGHT  PER  EINEAE  FOOT  OF  ROFND 
CAST  IRON. 


Diameter, 

Inches. 

Weight, 

Lbs. 

Diameter, 

Inches. 

Weight, 

Lbs. 

Diameter, 

Inches. 

Weight, 

Lbs. 

1 

2.45 

5 

61  36 

9 

198.80 

3.84 

5K 

67.65 

221.51 

5 52 

6>^ 

74.25 

10 

245 . 44 

7.52 

5% 

81.15 

10>^ 

270.60 

2 

9.82 

6 

88. 3g 

11 

296  98 

12.43 

6H 

95.87 

324  59 

2)^ 

15.34 

6>^ 

103.70 

12 

353.43 

2% 

18.56 

6M 

111.83 

13 

414.79 

3 

22  09 

7 

120.26 

14 

481  06 

3H 

25.92 

7K 

129.01 

15 

552  23 

3K 

30  07 

7K 

138  06 

16 

628.32 

3% 

34  52 

7% 

147.42 

17 

709  31 

4 

39.27 

8 

157  08 

18 

795.22 

4M 

44.33 

167.05 

20 

981  75 

4>^ 

49.70 

177.33 

22 

1187.92 

55.38  , 

8% 

187.91 

24 

1413.72 

379 


Rules  for  Obtaining  Approximate  Weight  of  Cast  Iron. 

Square  of  diameter  multiplied  by  2.46  equals  weight  of  cast 
iron  round  bar  i foot  long. 

To  ascertain  weight  of  cast  iron  columns  or  pipe  subtract 
weight  of  inside  diameter  of  shell  from  weight  of  outside  diame- 
ter. 

Square  of  the  diameter  divided  by  5 equals  approximately  the 
weight  of  a circular  cast  iron  plate  i inch  thick. 

Rules  for  Obtaining  Approximate  Weight  of  Wrought  Iron. 

For  Round  Bars — Rule:  Multiply  the  square  of  the  diame- 
ter in  inches  by  the  length  in  feet,  and  that  product  by  2.6.  The 
product  will  be  the  weight  in  pounds,  nearly. 

For  Square  and  Flat  Wrought  Bars — Ru.e:  Multiply 
the  area  of  the  end  of  the  bar  in  inches  by  the  length  in  feet, 
and  that  by  3.32.  The  product  will  be  the  weight  in  pounds, 
nearly. 

To  find  the  sectional  area  of  a bar  of  wrought  iron,  given  the 
weight  per  foot,  multiply  by  3 and  divide  by  10. 

To  find  the  weight  per  foot,  given  the  area,  divide  by  3 and 
multiply  by  10. 

To  Convert  Weight  of 


Wrought  Iron  into  Cast  Iron 

. X 0.928 

“ “ “ Steel 

X 1.014 

“ “ “ Zinc 

. X 0.918 

“ “ “ Brass 

X 1.082 

“ “ “ Copper 

. X 1.144 

“ “ ‘‘  Lead 

X 1.468 

Square  Iron  into  Round 

. X .7854 

Decimal  Approximations  Useful  in  Calculations, 


Cubic  inches. 

X .267 

= 

lbs. 

average  cast  iron. 

u 

a 

X .281 

(( 

a 

wrought  iron. 

(( 

a 

X .283 

= 

a 

a 

cast  steel. 

a 

X .3225 

= 

a 

a 

copper. 

u 

a 

X .3037 

= 

it 

a 

brass. 

u 

a 

X .26 

a 

a 

zinc. 

u 

it 

X .4103 

= 

a 

ti 

lead. 

u 

a 

X .2636 

= 

a 

it 

tin. 

a 

a 

X .4908 

= 

a 

ti 

mercury. 

Cylin. 

a 

X .2065 

= 

a 

it 

cast  iron. 

a 

a 

X .2168 

= 

C( 

it 

wrought  iron. 

it 

ti 

X .2223 

= 

u 

it 

cast  steel. 

a 

a 

X .2533 

= 

u 

ti 

copper. 

a 

a 

X .2385 

a 

ti 

brass. 

it 

“ 

X .2042 

= 

a 

it 

zinc. 

it 

u 

X .3223 

= 

a 

it 

lead. 

a 

“ 

X .207 

= 

a 

it 

tin. ' 

it 

a 

X .3854 

= 

a 

it 

mercury. 

380 


Weight  of  a Lineal  Foot  of  Flat  Bar  Iron,  in  Lbs. 

BIRMINGHAM  GAUGE. 


THICKNESS  IN  FRACTIONS  OF  INCHES, 


Breadth  m 


Inches. 

5-16 

% 

7-16 

ka 

% 

% 

% 

1 

1 

.83 

1.04 

1.25 

1.46 

1.67 

2.08 

2.50 

2.92 

3.34 

.93 

1.17 

1.40 

1.64 

1.87 

2.34 

2.81 

3.28 

3.75 

1^ 

1.04 

1.30 

1.56 

1.82 

2.08 

2.60 

3.13 

3.65 

4.17 

1.14 

1.43 

1.72 

2.00 

2.29 

2.87 

3.44 

4.01 

4.59 

1>I 

1.25 

1.56 

1.87 

2.19 

2.50 

3.13 

3.75 

4.38 

5.00 

1% 

1.35 

1.69 

2.03 

2.37 

2.71 

3.39 

4.07 

4.70 

5.43 

m 

1.46 

1.82 

2.19 

2.55 

2.92 

3.65 

4.38 

5.11 

5.84 

iVs 

1.56 

1.95 

2.34 

2.74 

3.13 

3.91 

4.69 

5.47 

6.26 

2 

1.67 

2.08 

2.50 

2.92 

3.34 

4.17 

5.01 

5.86 

6.63 

2y8 

1.77 

2.21 

2.66 

3.10 

3.55 

4.43 

5.32 

6.21 

7.10 

2% 

1.87 

2.34 

2.81 

3.28 

3.76 

4.69 

5.63 

6.57 

7.52 

2% 

1.98 

2.47 

2.97 

3.47 

3.96 

4.95 

5.95 

6.94 

7.93 

2y2 

2.08 

2.60 

3.13 

3.65 

4.17 

5.21 

6.26 

7.30 

8.35 

2% 

2.19 

2.74 

3.28 

3.83 

4.38 

5.47 

6.57 

7.67 

8.77 

2:fi 

2.29 

2.87 

3.44 

4.01 

4.59 

5.74 

6.88 

8.03 

9.18 

2/^ 

2.40 

3.00 

3.60 

4.20 

4.80 

6.00 

7.20 

8.40 

9.60 

3 

2.50 

3.13 

3.75 

4.38 

5.01 

6.26 

7.51 

8.76 

10.02 

3^ 

2.71 

3.39 

4.07 

4.74 

5.43 

6.78 

8.14 

9.49 

10.86 

2.92 

3 65 

4.38 

5.11 

5.84 

7.30 

8.76 

10.23 

11.69 

3^ 

3.13 

3.91 

4.68 

5.47 

6.26 

7.82 

9.39 

10.95 

12.52 

4 

3.34 

4.17 

5.00 

5.84 

6.68 

8.35 

10.02 

11.69 

13.36 

iy 

3.54 

4.43 

5.32 

6.21 

7.09 

8.87 

10.64 

12.42 

14.19 

iy2 

3.75 

4.69 

5.63 

6.57 

7.51 

9.39 

11.27 

13.15 

15.03 

4.06 

4.95 

5.94 

6.94 

7.93 

9.91 

11.89 

13.88 

15.86 

5 

4.17 

5.21 

6.26 

7.30 

8.35 

10.44 

12.52 

14.61 

16.70 

5^ 

4.38 

5.47 

6.57 

7.67 

8.76 

11.06 

13.14 

15.34 

17.53 

6y2 

4.59 

5.73 

6.88 

8.03 

9.18 

11,48 

13.77 

16.07 

18.37 

6% 

4.80 

6.00 

7.20 

8.40 

9.60 

12.00 

14.40 

16.80 

19.20 

6 

5.01 

6.25 

7.51 

8.76 

10.02 

12.53 

15.03 

17.53 

20.05 

Wrought  Iron,  Assumed  Weight. 

A cubic  foot  ..... 

A square  foot,  i inch  thick 
A bar  i inch  square,  i foot  long  . 

A “ I “ “ I yard  long  . , 


r=480 
=r  40 


lbs. 

ti 

(( 


OAUGES  AND  THEIR  EQIJIVAEENTS. 


No.  27,  equal  to 

A 

inch. 

No. 

12, 

equal  to 

A 

inch. 

U 21,  “ 

u 

A 

(( 

10, 

ii 

a 

>8 

it 

“ 18,  “ 

(( 

A 

a 

(( 

8, 

a 

it 

ii 

it 

“ 16,  » 

(( 

tV 

a 

it 

6, 

it 

it 

a 

“ 14,  “ 

it 

A 

u 

it 

6, 

(( 

a 

A 

a 

“ 13,  “ 

it 

A 

(( 

u 

4, 

it 

a 

a 

Truth  is  as  impossible  to  be  soiled  by  any  outward  touch  as 
the  sunbeam. — Lord  Bacon, 


381 


AMERICAN  ANR  BIRMINGHAM  WIRE  GAUGES. 
THICKNESS  IN  INCHES. 

• Haswell. 


Gauge. 

Thickness 

American 

Gauge. 

Thickness 

Birmingham 

Gauge. 

Gauge. 

Thickness 

American 

Gauge. 

Thickness 

Birmingham 

Gauge. 

0000 

.46 

.454 

17 

.0452 

.058 

000 

.4096 

.425 

18 

.0403 

.049 

00 

.3648 

.38 

19 

.0359 

.042 

0 

.3248 

.34 

20 

.0319 

.035 

1 

.2893 

.30 

21 

.0284 

.032 

2 

.2576 

.284 

22 

.0253 

.028 

3 

.2294 

.259 

23 

0225 

025 

4 

.2043 

.238 

24 

.0201 

.022 

5 

.1819 

.22 

25 

.0179 

.02 

6 

.1620 

.203 

26 

.0160 

.018 

7 

.1443 

.18 

27 

.0142 

.016 

8 

.1285 

.165 

28 

.0126 

.014 

9 

.1144 

.148 

29 

.0112 

.013 

10 

.1019 

.134 

30 

.01 

.012 

11 

.0907 

.12 

31 

.0089 

.01 

12 

.0808 

.109 

32 

0079 

.009 

13 

.0719 

.095 

33 

.007 

.008 

14 

.0641 

.083 

34 

.0063 

.007 

15 

.057 

.072 

35 

.0056 

.005 

16 

.0508 

.065 

36 

005 

.004 

Tlie  Area,  of  a Circle. 

Of  all  plane  figures,  the  circle  is  the  most  capacious,  or  has  the 
greatest  area  within  the  same  limits.  It  is  geometrically  demon- 
strable that  it  has  the  same  area  as  a right-angled  triangle  with 
a base  equal  to  its  circumference,  and  a perpendicular  equal  to 
its  radius,  that  is,  half  the  product  of  the  radius  and  circumfer- 
ence. It  is  obviously  larger  than  any  figure,  of  however  mani^ 
sides,  inscribed  within  its  perimeter,  and  smaller  than  any  cir- 
cumscribed polygon.  As  a result  of  laborious  calculations  on 
this  basis  (pushed  in  one  instance  to  600  places  of  decimals  with- 
out reaching  the  end),  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the  ratio  of 
the  diameter  to  the  circumference  of  any  circle  (sufficient)  ex- 
act for  all  practical  purposes),  is  as  i : 3.1416  (3.141592653-4-)  or 
in  whole  numbers,  approximately,  as  7 : 22,  or  more  nearly  as 
113:355.  Hence,  to  find  the  circumference  or  diameter,  the 
other  quantity  being  known,  multiply  or  divide  by  3.1416;  and  to 
find  the  area,  multiply  half  the  diameter  by  half  the  circumfer- 
ence, or  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  .7854  (3.1416-7-4). 

To  FIND  THE  SURFACE  OF  A GLOBE,  multiply  the  Square  of 
the  diameter  by  3.1416. 

To  FIND  THE  SOLIDITY  OF  A GLOBE,  multiply  the  cube  of  the 
diameter  by  .5236.  [382] 


AREAS  OF  CIRCLES, 

Advancing  by  eighths. 


AREAS. 


E 

cs 

5 

0 

Vs 

% 

Vs 

0 

.0 

.0122 

.0490 

.1104 

.1963 

.3068 

.4417 

.6013 

1 

.7854 

.9940 

1.227 

1.484 

1.767 

2.073 

2.405 

2.761 

2 

3.1416 

3.546 

3.976 

4.430 

4.908 

5.411 

5.939 

64.91 

3 

7.068 

7.669 

8.295 

8.946 

9.621 

10.32 

11.04 

11.79 

4 

12.56 

13.36 

14.18 

15.03 

15.90 

16.80 

17.72 

18.66 

5 

19.63 

20.62 

21.64 

22.69 

23.75 

24.85 

25.96 

27.10 

C 

28.27 

29.46 

30.67 

31.91 

33.18 

34.47 

35.78 

37.12 

7 

38.48 

39.87 

41.28 

42.71 

44.17 

45.66 

47.17 

48.70 

8 

50.26 

51.84 

53.45 

55.  C8 

56.74 

58.42 

60.13 

61.86 

9 

63.61 

65.39 

67.20 

09.02 

70.88 

'J2.75 

74.69 

76.58 

10 

78.54 

80.51 

82.51 

84.54 

86.59 

88  66 

90.76 

92.88 

n 

95.03 

97.20 

99.40 

101.6 

103.8 

106.1 

108.4 

110.7 

12 

113.0 

115.4 

117.8 

120.2 

122.7 

125.1 

127.6 

130.1 

13 

132.7 

135.2 

137.8 

140.5 

143.1 

145.8 

148.4 

151.2 

14 

153.9 

156.6 

159.4 

162.2 

165.1 

167.9 

170.8 

173  7 

15 

176.7 

179  6 

182.6 

18).  6 

188.6 

191.7 

194.8 

197.9 

16 

201.0 

204.2 

207.3 

210.5 

213.8 

217.0 

220.3 

223.6 

17 

226.9 

230.3 

233.7 

287.1 

240.5 

243.9 

247.4 

250.9 

18 

254.4 

258.0 

261.5 

265.1 

268.8 

272.4 

276.1 

279.8 

19 

283.5 

287.2 

291.0 

294  8 

298.8 

302.4 

306.3 

310.2 

20 

314.1 

318.1 

322.0 

326.0 

330.0 

334.1 

338.1 

342.2 

21 

346.3 

350.4 

351.6 

358.8 

363.0 

367.2 

371.5 

375.8 

22 

380.1 

384.4 

388  8 

393.2 

397.6 

402.0 

406.4 

410.9 

23 

415.4 

420.0 

424.5 

429.1 

433  7 

438.3 

443.0 

447.6 

24 

452.3 

457.1 

461.8 

466.6 

471.4 

476.2 

481.1 

485.9 

25 

490.8 

495.7 

500.7 

505.7 

510.7 

515.7 

520.7 

525.8 

26 

530.9 

536.0 

541.1 

546.3 

551.5 

556.7 

562.0 

567.2 

27 

572.5 

577.8 

583.2 

588.5 

593.9 

599.3 

604.8 

610.2 

28 

615.7 

621.2 

62:6.7 

632.3 

637.9 

643.5 

649.1 

654.8 

29 

660.5 

666.2 

671.9 

677.7 

683.4 

689.2 

695.1 

700.9 

30 

706.8 

712.7 

718.6 

724.6 

730.6 

736.6 

742.6 

748.6 

31 

754.8 

760.9 

767.0 

773.1 

779.3 

785.5 

791.7 

798.0 

32 

804.3 

810.6 

816.9 

823.2 

829.6 

836.0 

842.4 

848.8 

33 

855.3 

861.8 

868.3 

874.9 

881.4 

888.0 

894.6 

901.3 

34 

907.9 

914.7 

921.3 

928.1 

934.8 

941.6 

948.4 

955.3 

35 

962.1 

969.0 

975.9 

982.8 

989.8 

996.8 

1003.8 

1010.8 

36 

1017.9 

1025.0 

1032.1 

1039.2 

1046.3 

1053.5 

1060.7 

1068.0 

37 

1075.2 

1082.5 

1089.8 

1097.1 

1104.5 

1111.8 

1119.2 

1126.7 

38 

1134.1 

1141.6 

1149.1 

1156.6 

1164.2 

1171.7 

1179.3 

1186.9 

39 

1194.6 

1202.3 

1210.0 

1217.7 

1225.4 

1233.2 

1241.0 

1248.8 

40 

12.56.6 

1264.5 

1272.4 

1280.3 

1288.2 

1296.2 

1304.2 

1312.2 

41 

1320.3 

1328.3 

1336.4 

1344.5 

1352.7 

1:360.8 

1369.0 

1377.2 

42 

1385.4 

1393.7 

1402.0 

1410.3 

1418.6 

1427.0 

1435.4 

1443.8 

43 

1452.2 

1460.7 

1469.1 

1477.6 

1486.2 

1494.7 

1503.3 

1511.9 

44 

1520.5 

1529.2 

1537.9 

1543 . 6 

1555.3 

1564.0 

1572.8 

1581.6 

45 

1590.4 

1599.3 

1608.2 

1617.0 

1626.0 

1634.9 

1643.9 

1652.9 

383 


CIRCUMFERENCES  OF  CIRCLES, 

Advancing  by  eighths. 


CIRCUMFERENCES. 


i 

n 

5 

0 

^8 

% 

Vs 

0 

.0 

.3927 

.7854 

1.178 

1.570 

. 1.963 

2.356 

2.748^ 

1 

3.141 

3.534 

3.927 

4.319 

4.712 

5.105 

5.497 

5.890 

2 

6.283 

6.675 

7.068 

7.461 

7.854 

8.246 

8.639 

9.032 

3 

9.424 

9.817 

10.21 

10.60 

10.99 

11.38 

11.78 

12.17 

4 

12.56 

12.95 

13.35 

13.74 

14.13 

14.52 

14.92 

15.31 

5 

15.70 

16.10 

16.49 

16.88 

17.27 

17.67 

18.06 

18.45 

6 

18.84 

19.24 

19.63 

20.02 

20.42 

20.81 

21.20 

21.59 

7 

21.99 

22.38 

22.77 

23.16 

23.56 

23.95 

24.^4 

24.74 

8 

25.13 

25.52 

25.91 

26.31 

26.70 

27.09 

27.48 

27.88 

9 

28.27 

28  66 

29.05 

29.45 

29.84 

30.23 

30.63 

31.02 

10 

31.41 

31.80 

82.20 

32.59 

32.98 

33.37 

33.77 

34.16 

11 

34.55 

34.95 

35.34 

35.73 

36.12 

36.52 

36.91 

37.30 

12 

37.69 

38.09 

38.48 

38.87 

39.27 

39.66 

40.05 

40.44 

13 

40.84 

41.23 

41.62 

42.01 

42.41 

42.80 

43.19 

43.58 

14 

43.98 

44.37 

44.76 

45.16 

45.55 

45.94 

46.33 

46.73 

15 

47.12 

47.51 

47.90 

48.30 

48.69 

49.08 

49.48 

49.87 

16 

50.26 

50.65 

51.05 

51.44 

51.83 

52.22 

52.62 

53.01 

17 

53.40 

53.79 

64.19 

54.58 

54.97 

55.37 

55.76 

56.15 

18 

56.54 

56.94 

57.33 

57.72 

58.11 

58.51 

58.90 

59.29 

19 

59.69 

60.08 

60.47 

60.86 

61.26 

61.65 

62.04 

62.43 

20 

62.83 

63.22 

63.61 

64.01 

64.40 

64.79 

,65.18 

65.58 

21 

65.97 

66.36 

66.75 

67.15 

67.54 

67.93 

68.32 

68.72 

22 

69.11 

69.50 

69.90 

70.29 

70.68 

71.07 

71.47 

71.86 

23 

72.25 

72.64 

73.04 

73.43 

73.82 

74.22 

74.61 

75.00 

24 

75.39 

75.79 

76.18 

76.57 

76.96 

77.36 

77.75 

78.14 

25 

78.54 

78.93 

79.32 

79.71 

80.10 

80.50 

80.89 

81.28 

26 

81.68 

82.07 

82.46 

82.85 

83.25 

83.64 

84.03 

84.43 

27 

84.82 

85.21 

85.60 

86.00 

86.. 39 

86.78 

87.17 

87.57 

28 

87.96 

88.35 

88.75 

89.14 

89.53 

89.92 

90.32 

90.71 

29 

91.10 

91.49 

91.89 

92.28 

92.67 

93.06 

93.46 

93.85 

30 

94.24 

94.64 

95.03 

95.42 

95.81 

96.21 

96.60 

96.99 

31 

97.39 

97.78 

98.17 

98.57 

98.96 

99.35 

99.75 

100.14 

32 

100.53 

100.92 

101.32 

101.71 

102.10 

102.49 

102.89 

103.29 

33 

103.67 

104.07 

104.46 

104.85 

105.24 

105.64 

106.03 

106.42 

34 

106.81 

107.21 

107.60 

107.99 

108.. 39 

108.78 

109.17 

109.56 

35 

109.96 

110.35 

110.74 

111.13 

111.53 

111.92 

112.31 

112.71 

36 

113.10 

113.49 

113.88 

114.28 

114.67 

115.06 

115.45 

115.85 

37 

116.24 

116.63 

117.02 

117.42 

117.81 

118,20 

118.61 

118.99 

38 

119.38 

119.77 

120.17 

120.56 

120.95 

121.34 

121.74 

122.13 

39 

122.52 

122.92 

123.31 

123.70 

124.09 

124.49 

124.88 

125.27 

40 

125.66 

126.06 

126.45 

126.84 

127.24 

127.63 

128.02 

128.41 

41 

128.81 

129.20 

127.59 

129.98 

130.38 

130.77 

131.16 

131.55 

42 

131.95 

132. ?4 

132.73 

133.13 

133.52 

133.91 

134.30 

134.70 

43 

135.09 

135.48 

135.87 

136.27 

136.66 

137.05 

137.45 

137.84 

44 

138.23 

138.62 

139.02 

139.41 

139.80 

140.19 

140.59 

140.98 

45 

141.37 

141.76 

142.16 

142.55 

142.94 

143.34 

143.73 

144.12 

384 


Table  of  Decimal  Equivalents  of  8ths,  16ths,  32nds 
and  64ths  of  an  Inch. 


8ths. 


125 

.250 

.375 

.500 

.625 

.750 

.875 


leths. 


tV  = .062.5 
A = .1875 
A = .3125 
xV  = .4375 
x\  = .5625 
^ = 6875 
f|  = .8125 
11  = .9375 


32lldS. 

xV  = .03125 
Jj  = .09375 


A = .15625 
X = .21875 
5^  = .28125 
II  ^ .34375 
II  = .40625 
II  = .46875 
1.1=  ,5.3125 
ll  = .59375 
|,1  = .65625 
If  = .71875 
II  = .78125 
U = .84375 
I I = .9C625 
II  ==  .96875 

64tlis. 

= . 015625 
= .046875 
g^j  = .078125 
gV  ==  .109375 
= .140625 
= .171875 
If  = .203125 
if  = .234375 


if  ==  .265625 
If  = .296875 
If  = .328125 
If  ==  .359375 
If  = .390625 
If  ==  .421875 
If  ==  .453125 
If  2=  .484375 
If  = .515625 
If  = .546875 
If  = .578125 
II  = .609375 
If  ==  .640625 
If  = .671875 
If  = .703125 
If  = .734375 
II  = .765625 
|i  = .796875 
If  = .828125 
If  = .859375 
If  = .890625 
If  = .921875 
If  ==  .953125 
If  ==  .984375 


Handy  Facts  for  Architects  and  Builders. 

Pitch  of  tin,  copper  or  tar-and-gravel  roofs  five-eighths  of  an 
inch  to  the  foot  and  upwards. 

The  average  weight  of  20,000  men  and  women  weighed  at 
Boston  was:  Men,  ^^s.;  women,  124^% 

Smallest  convenient  size  of  slab  for  a 14-in.  wash  bowl,  21  by 
24  in.  Height  of  slab  from  floor,  2 ft.  6 in. 

Urinals  should  be  2 ft.  2 in.  between  partitions;  partitions  6 ft. 
high. 

Space  occupied  by  water-closets,  2 ft.  6 in.  wide;  2 ft.  deep. 

Dimensions  of  double  bed,  6 ft.  6 in.  by  4 ft.  6 in. 

Dimensions  of  single  bed  (in  dormitories),  2 ft  8 in.  by  6 ft. 
6 in. 

Dimensions  of  a bureau,  3 ft.  2 in.  wide,  i ft.  6 in.  deep,  and 
upwards. 

Dimensions  of  a common  wash-stand,  2 ft.  4 in.  wide,  i ft.  6 
in.  deep. 


385 


HANDT  FACTS  FOR  ARCHITECTS,  ETC. 

Dimensions  of  a barrel — Diameter  of  head,  17  in.;  bung,  19 
in.;  length,  28  in.;  volume,  7,680  cubic  in. 

Dimensions  of  billiard  tables  (Collender) — 4 ft.  bj  8 ft.;  4 ft. 
2 in.  by  9 ft.;  and  5 ft.  by  10  ft.  Size  of  room  required  respect- 
ively, 13  by  17;  14  by  18;  15  by  20. 

Horse-stalls — Width,  3 ft.  10  in.  to  4 ft.,  or  else  5 ft.  or  over  in 
width — nine  feet  long.  Width  should  never  be  between  4 and  5 
ft.,  as  in  that  case  the  horse  is  liable  to  cast  himself. 

HORSf:  POWER  OF  STEAM  ENGINES,  ETC. 

The  unit  bf  nominal  power  for  steam  engines,  or  the  usual  es- 
timate of  dynamical  effect  per  minute  of  a horse,  called  by  en- 
gineers a “horse  power,”  is  33,000  pounds  at  a velocity  of  i foot 
per  minute,  or,  the  effect  of  a load  of  200  pounds  raised  by  a 
horse  for  8 hours  a day,  at  the  rate  of  2)^  miles  per  hour,  or  150 
pounds  at  the  rate  of  220  feet  per  minute. 

Rule. — Multiplj^  the  area  of  the  piston  in  square  inches  by 
the  average  force  of  the  steam  in  pounds  and  by  the  velocity  of 
the  piston  in  feet  per  minute;  divide  the  product  by  33,000,  and 
of  the  quotient  equal  the  effective  power. 

Another  Rule. — The  diameter  of  the  piston  in  inches,  mul- 
tiplied hy  itself,  multiplied  by  the  stroke  in  inches,  multiplied  by 
the  revolutions  per  minute  (not  the  strokes),  multiplied  by  the 
mean  effective  (average  pressure  per  square  inch  on  piston),  mul- 
tiplied by  .00000397,  gives  the  gross  or  indicated  horse  power. 

For  the  net  effective  horse  power,  deduct  from  the  above  about 
34  for  friction  of  the  working  parts. 

The  mean  effective  pressure  can  be  accurately  determined  only 
by  the  aid  of  an  indicator.  When  the  indicator  is  not  used,  and 
in  the  calculation  the  boiler  pressure  is  substituted  for  the  mean 
effective  pressure,  deduct  from  the  result  obtained  from  40  to  60 
per  cent,  for  loss  by  condensation  and  friction  of  steam  pipes  and 
passages,  decrease  of  pressure  in  cylinder  due  to  expansion,  back 
pressure  of  exhaust,  and  friction  of  the  working  parts. 

For  engines  from  20  to  60  horse  power,  an  average  of  50  per 
cent,  may  be  deducted;  for  smaller  engines,  more. 

The  mean  pressure  in  the  cylinder  when  cutting  off  at 
34  stroke  equals  boiler  pressure  multiplied  by  .597 


% 

K 

% 


.670 

.743 

.847 

.919 

.937 

.966 

.992 


Best  designed  boilers,  well  set,  with  good  draft  and  skillful 
firing,  will  evaporate  from  7 to  10  lbs.  of  water  per  pound  of  first- 

386 


HORSE  POWER  OF  STEAM  ENGINES. 

class  coal.  The  average  result  is  from  30  to  60  per  cent.  beloM 
this. 

In  calculating  horse  power  of  Tubular  or  Flue  boilers,  con- 
sider 15  square  feet  of  heating  surface  equivalent  to  one  noniina) 
horse  power. 

One  square  foot  of  grate  will  consume  on  an  average  12  lbs 
of  coal  per  hour. 

Steam  engines,  in  economjq  vary  from  30  to  60  lbs.  of  fe^* 
water  and  from  2 to  7 lbs.  of  coal  per  hour  per  indicated  H.  P. 

HOitSE:  POWER  OF  BEETING. 

A simple  rule  for  ascertaining  transmitting  power  of  belting 
without  first  computing  speed  per  minute  that  it  travels,  is  as  fol- 
lows: Multiply  diameter  of  pulley  in  inches  by  its  number  of 
revolutions  per  minute,  and  this  product  by  width  of  the  belt  in 
inches;  divide  the  product  by  3,300  for  single  belting,  or  by  2,100 
for  double  belting,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  amount  of  horse 
power  that  can  be  safely  transmitted. 


Table  for  Single  Eeatlier,  Four  Ply  Rubber  and  Four 
Ply  Cotton  Belting,  Belts  not  Overloaded* 

1 INCH  WIDE,  800  FEET  PER  MINUTE=1  HORSE  POWER. 


Speed 
in  Ft  per 
Min. 

2 

3 

4 

WIDTH  OF  BELTS  IN  INCHES. 

5 6 8 10  12  14 

16 

18 

20 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H P. 

400 

1 

2 

21 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

600 

n 

2} 

3 

3| 

6 

7i 

9 

101 

12 

13^ 

15 

800 

n 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14" 

16 

18 

20 

1000 

2 

n 

5 

6| 

7i 

10 

in 

15 

171 

20 

221 

25 

1200 

3 

6 

71 

• 2 

9 

12 

15 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

1503 

3| 

6| 

n 

n 

in 

15 

18| 

22i 

26i 

30 

33| 

37i- 

1800 

n 

C| 

9 

Hi 

131 

18 

22i 

27 

311 

36 

401 

45 

2000 

5 

10 

in 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

2400 

6 

9 

12 

15 

18 

24 

30 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

2800 

7 

10| 

14 

in 

21 

28 

35 

42 

49 

56 

63 

70 

3300 

lu 

15 

18i 

221 

30 

37i 

45 

521 

60 

671 

75 

3500 

13 

in 

22 

26 

35 

44 

521 

61 

70 

79 

88 

4000 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

4500 

lU 

17 

221 

28 

34 

45 

57 

69 

78 

90 

102 

114 

5000 

19 

25 

31 

m 

50 

62i 

75 

871 

100 

112 

125 

Double  leather,  six-ply  rubber  or  six-ply  cotton  belting  will 
transmit  50  to  75  per  cent,  more  power  than  is  shown  in  this  table. 
(One  inch  wide,  550  feet  per  minute=one  horse  power.) 

387 


Table  of  Transmission  of  Power  by  Wire  Ropes. 


1 Diameter  of  [i 

Wheel  in  Ft. 

Number  of 
Revolutions. 

Trade  No. 

of  Rope. 

1 

Diameter  of 

Rope. 

Horse 

Power. 

j Diameter  of 

Wheel  in  Ft. 

1 Number  of 

Revolutions. 

1 Trade  No. 

of  Rope. 

Diameterof 

Rope, 

Horse 

Power. 

4 

80 

23 

3 

8 

3.3 

10 

80 

(19 

(18 

f 

a 

i 55  0 
( 58  4 

4 

4 

lOG,: 

120 

.^23 

23 

3 

J 

1 

4.1 

5 0 

10 

100 

(19 

(18 

f 

j 68  7 
( 73  0 

4 

140 

23 

S 

8 

5.8 

10 

120 

(19 

(18 

5 

8 

H 

j 82  5 
( 87  6 

5 

80 

22 

tV 

6 9 

10 

140 

(19 

(18 

i 

H 

j 96  2 
(102  2 

5 

5 

100 

120 

22 

22 

7 

1 S' 

_7_ 

8.G 

10  3 

11 

80 

(19 

(18 

f 

xi 

j 64  9 

1 75  5 

5 

140 

22 

12.1 

11 

100 

(19 

(18 

f 

T6 

j 81  1 
( 94  4 

6 

80 

21 

1 

2 

10  7 

11 

120 

(19 

(18 

f 

1 1 

T6 

j 97  3 
(113  3 

6 

6 

100 

120 

21 

21 

1 

2 

1 

13  4 

16  1 

11 

140 

(19 

(18 

5 

8 

1 1 

1 6 

S113.6 

■(132.1 

6 

140 

21 

1 

18  7 

12 

80 

(18 

(17 

1 1 

T6 

f 

j 93  4 
} 99.3 

7 

80 

20 

9 

16 

16.9 

12 

100 

(18 

}17 

f 

jll6  7 
U24  1 

7 

7 

100 

120 

20 

20 

9 

T6 

9 

21.1 

25  3 

12 

120 

(18 

(17 

H 

I 

jl40  1 
(148  9 

7 

140 

20 

T 6 

rs- 

29  6 

12 

140 

(18 

(17 

1 1 

1 6 

3 

X 

(163.5 
U73  7 

8 

80 

19 

1 

22.0 

13 

80 

(18 

(17 

3 

X 

(112  0 
^122.6 

8 

8 

100 

120 

19 

19 

5 

8 

5 

27  5 

33  0 

. 13 

100 

(18 

|l7 

1 1 

T6 

3 

X 

(140  0 
(153  2 

8 

140 

19 

8 

5 

'S 

38.5 

13 

120 

118 

(17 

H 

3 

X 

(168  0 
(183  9 

9 

9 

80 

100 

(20 

(19 

(20 

(19 

5 

16  8 

9 5 

T6  8 

j40.0 
(41  5 

(50  0 
(51  9 

14 

14 

11 

80 

100 

120 

(17 

(16 

(17 

(16 

(17 

(16 

i 

i 

i 

1 

J 

i 

(148  0 
■(141  0 
(185  0 
(176  0 
j222  0 
(211  0 

9 

120 

(20 

(19 

9 5 

TF  8 

j60  0 
(62  2 

15 

80 

17 

(16 

f 

i 

(217  0 
(217  0 

9 

140 

(20 

9 5 

j70  0 

15 

100 

(17 

(16 

3 

? 

i 

(259.0 
(259  0 

(19 

(72  6 

15 

120 

(17 

(16 

3 

T 

i 

j300  0 
■(300.0 

388 


USEFUL  HYDRAULIC  INFORMATION. 

A gallon  of  water  (U.  S.  standard)  weighs  pounds  and 
contains  231  cubic  inches.  A cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  6234 
pounds,  and  contains  1,728  cubic  inches  or  734  gallons. 

Doubling  the  diameter  of  a pipe  increases  its  capacity  four 
times.  Friction  of  liquids  in  pipes  increases  as  the  square  of  the 
velocity. 

The  mean  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  usually  estimated  at 
14.7  pounds  per  square  inch,  so  that  with  a perfect  vacuum  it 
will  sustain  a column  of  mercury  29.9  inches  or  a column  of 
water  33.9  feet  high. 

To  find  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch  of  a column  of 
water,  multiply  the  height  of  the  column  in  feet  by  .434. 
Approximately  we  say  that  every  foot  elevation  is  equal  to  34 
pound  pressure  per  square  inch;  this  allows  for  ordinary  fric- 
tion. 

To  find  the  diameter  of  a pump  cylinder  to  move  a given 
quantity  of  water  per  minute  (100  feet  of  piston  being  the  stand- 
ard of  speed),  divide  the  number  of  gallons  by  4,  then  extract 
the  square  root,  and  the  product  will  be  the  diameter  in  inches  of 
the  pump  cylinder. 

To  find  quantity  of  water  elevated  in  one  minute  running  at 
100  feet  of  piston  speed  per  minute:  Square  the  diameter  of  the 
water  cylinder  in  inches  and  multiply  by  4.  Example:  Ca- 
pacity of  a 5-inch  cylinder  is  desired.  The  square  of  the  diameter 
(5  inches)  is  25,  which,  multiplied  by  4,  gives  100,  the  number  of 
gallons  per  minute  (approximately). 

To  find  the  horse  power  necessary  to  elevate  water  to  a given 
height,  multiply  the  total  weight  of  the  water  in  lbs.  by  the 
height  in  feet  and  divide  the  product  by  33,000  (an  allowance  of 
25  per  cent,  should  be  added  for  water  friction,  and  a further  al- 
lowance of  25  per  cent,  for  loss  in  steam  cylinder). 

The  area  of  the  steam  piston,  multiplied  by  the  steam  pressure, 
gives  the  total  amount  of  pressure  that  can  be  exerted.  The 
area  of  the  water  piston  multiplied  by  the  pressure  of  water  per 
square  inch  gives  the  resistance.  A margin  must  be  made  be- 
tween the  power  and  the  resistance  to  move  the  pistons  at  the 
required  speed — say  from  20  to  40  per  cent.,  according  to  speed 
and  other  conditions. 

To  find  the  capacity  of  a cylinder  in  gallons.  Multiplying 
the  area  in  inches  by  the  length  of  stroke  in  inches,  will  give 
the  total  number  of  cubic  inches;  divide  this  amount  by  231 
(which  is  the  cubical  contents  of  a U.  S.  gallon  in  inches), 
and  the  product  is  the  capacity  in  gallons. 

With  the  efficient  working  of  pumps  certain  precautions  are 
necessary.  Following  are  a few  hints  that  will  be  of  service  to 
persons  interested  in  the  subject: 

Care  should  be  exercised  to  prevent  foreign  substances  from  entering  the  suction 

889* 


USE]!>  UL  HTDRA  ULIC  IN  FORM  A TION. 

In  case  ot  such  danger  a stramer  should  be  used  and  the  total  area  of  the 
strains  holes  should  be  from  two  to  five  times  the  area  of  the  pipe. 

It  is  of  great  advantage  to  have  the  suction  pipe  as  straight  and  free  as  possible. 
Elbows  and  valves  obstruct  the  flow  of  water  much  more  than  usually  supposed. 

Above  all  other  things,  the  suction  pipe  should  be  perfectly  air-tight,  as  a very 
small  leak  will  supply  the  pump  with  so  much  air  that  little  or  no  water  will  be  ob- 
tained. 

It  is  advantageous,  and,  when  high  speed  is  desired,  becomes  a necessity,  to  con- 
nect a vacuum  chamber  to  the  suction  pipe  near  the  pump. 

A foot-valve  should  be  used  on  long  or  high  suctions.  Its  area  should  be  at  least 
as  much  as  the  pipe. 

If  in  an  exposed  position,  the  pump  should  be  thoroughly  drained  after  stopping, 
to  prevent  injury  by  frost,  by  means  of  the  drain-cocks  provided  for  the  purpose. 

When  a pump  is  to  remain  idle  for  some  time  the  steam  cylinder  should  be  well 
oiled  before  stopping. 

The  stuffing-boxes  should  be  carefully  packed  so  as  not  to  necessitate  them  being 
screwed  down  too  tight. 

The  most  economical  speed  to  run  a pump  is  loo  feet  per  minute. 

The  friction  of  liquids  in  pipes  increases  as  the  square  of  the  velocity. 

To  find  the  capacity  of  a Double-Acting  Pump  in  U.  S.  gal- 
lons per  minute,  multiply  together:  the  area  of  the  water  cylin-' 
der  in  inches;  the  length  of  the  stroke  in  inches;  the  number  of 
single  strokes  per  minute.  Divide  the  product  by  231.  For  a 
Single-Acting  Pump  take  half  the  number  of  single  strokes. 

For  domestic  use  water  should  be  kept  in  wooden  or  iron 
tanks.  Zinc  can  be  used  to  advantage.  The  use  of  lead-lined 
tanks  is  exceedingly  dangerous,  especially  for  keeping  rain 
water. 


CAPACITY  OF  CYLINDRICAL  CISTERNS  OR  TANKS 

For  Each  Foot  of  Depth  (U.  S.  Gallons). 


Diameter  in 
Feet. 

Gallons. 

Pounds. 

Diameter  in 
Feet. 

Gallons. 

Pounds. 

2.0 

23.5 

196 

9.0 

475.9 

3,968 

2.5 

36.7 

306 

9.5 

530.2 

4,421 

3.0 

52.9 

441 

10.0 

587.5 

4,899 

3.5 

72.0 

600 

11.0 

710.9 

5,928 

4.0 

94.0 

784 

12  0 

846.0 

7,054 

4.5 

119.0 

992. 

13.0 

992.9 

8,280 

5.0 

146  9 

1,225 

14.0 

1,151.5 

9,602 

5.5 

177.7 

1,482 

15.0 

1,321.9 

11,023 

6.0 

211.5 

1,764 

20.0 

2,350.1 

19,596 

6.5 

248.2 

2,070 

25  0 

3,672.0 

31,620 

7.0 

287.9 

2,401 

30.0 

5,287.7 

44,093 

7.5 

330.5 

2,756 

35.0 

7,197.1 

60,016 

8.0 

376.0 

3,135 

40.0 

9,400.3 

78,3o8 

8.5 

424.5 

3,540 

The  great  philosopher,  Plato,  defined  man  as  a featherless 

biped.  Thereupon  the  shrewd  old  cynic,  Diogehese,  plucked  the  feathers  from  a 
goose,  and,  having  labeled  it  “Plato’s  man,”  threw  it  over  into  the  philosopher’s 
class-room, 


390 


SIZE,  CAPACITY,  ETC.,  OF  BOILERS. 

LOCOMOTIVES. 


Length. 

Diam. 

Fire  Box 

Dome. 

Flues. 

Length. 

Area 

Chimney. 

Capac- 

ity. 

Ft. 

in. 

incl.es. 

inches. 

inches. 

in. 

ft. 

in. 

sq.  inches. 

sq.  m. 

7 

3 

3 ) 

30x30 

IGxlG 

4G  2 

4 

G 

138 

850 

7 

3 

42 

30x3G 

lGx20 

48  2>^ 

4 

G 

240 

1100 

8 

3 

42 

3Gx3G 

lGx20 

48  2>^ 

5 

240 

1250 

I ) 

3 

42 

.>Gx3G 

20x24 

48  234- 

7 

240 

1725 

12 

3 

42 

3Gx42 

24x24 

40  3 

8 

G 

280 

2000 

I i 

3 

42 

3Gx42 

24x24 

40  3 

10 

G 

280 

2500 

1) 

3 

48 

42x3G 

24x24 

50  3 

7 

350 

2000 

11 

3 

48 

42x42 

24x30 

50  3 

10 

G 

350 

3000 

K) 

48 

42x48 

30x30 

50  3 

11 

9 

350 

3G00 

Shell  34  1 5 heads  and  fire-box,  x\-in.  C.  H 

No.  1 flange  ; wrought  iron  rings  around  fire  door  and  in  legs. 


HORIZONTAL  TUBULARS. 


Length . 

Diam. 

Dome. 

No.  Flues. 

Area 

Chimney. 

Heating  S. 

Capacity. 

Feet. 

inches. 

inches. 

in. 

sq.  inches. 

sq.  inches. 

sq.  inches. 

10 

3G 

20x20 

30  3 

2G0 

280 

1400 

12 

3G 

20x24 

30  3 

2G0 

330 

1650 

10 

42 

20x24 

40  3 

350 

380 

1900 

12 

42 

24x24 

40  3 

350 

440 

2200 

14 

42 

24x24 

40  3 

350 

480 

2400 

IG 

42 

24x30 

40  3 

350 

5G0 

2800 

14 

48 

24x30 

50  3 

440 

G30 

3150 

IG 

48 

24x30 

50  3 

440 

725 

3625 

IG 

54 

30x3G 

50  3K 

G25 

850 

4250 

IG 

GO 

30x3G 

50  4 ^ 

800 

975 

4875 

18 

GO 

30x3G 

50  4 

800 

1250 

6250 

Small  boilers:  Shell  j^  in.  C.  H.  No.  1 iron;  heads,  ^ 

H.  No.  1 flange  iron. 

Large  boilers  (54-in.  and  upwards):  Shell  %‘in.  C.  H.  No. 
1 iron;  heads,  C.  H.  No.  1 flange  iron. 

BRICK  CHIMNEYS. 

Thickness  of  brick- work,  one  brick  from  top  to  twenty -five 
feet  from  top;  a brick  and  a half  from  25  to  50  ft.  from  top,  in- 
creasing by  half  a brick  for  each  additional  25  feet  to  bottom. 
The  diameter  at  base  should  be  not  less  than  one-tenth  the 
height.  If  the  inside  diameter  at  top  exceed  4 3^  feet,  the  top 
length  should  be  a brick  and  a half  thick. 

391 


BOII^SR  CHIIRNEYS. 

For  marine  boilers  the  general  rule  is  to  allow  14  sq.  in.  of 
chimney  for  each  nominal  horse-power.  For  stationary  boilers 
the  area  of  the  chimneys  should  be  one-fifth  greater  than  the 
combined  area  of  all  the  flues  or  tubes.  Where  boilers  are  pro- 
vided with  other  means  of  draught  the  dimensions  of  the  chimney 
are  not  so  important. 

Oiameter  and  Heiglit  of  Boiler  Chimneys, 


Horse  pow’r 
of  Boiler. 

Height  of 
Chimney. 

Interior  Diam. 
at  Top. 

Horse  pow’r 
of  Boiler. 

Height  of 
Chimney. 

Interior  Diam. 
at  Top. 

10 

60  ft. 

14  inches. 

70 

120  ft. 

30  inches. 

12 

75  “ 

14  “ 

90 

120  “ 

34 

16 

90  “ 

16  “ 

120 

135  “ 

38  “ 

20 

99  “ 

17  “ 

160 

150  “ 

43  “ 

30 

105  “ 

21  “ 

200 

165  “ 

47 

60 

120  “ 

26  “ 

250 

180  “ 

42  “ 

60 

120  “ 

27  “ 

380 

195  “ 

57  ‘‘ 

Table  of  the  Principal  Alloys. 

A combination  of  copper  and  tin  makes  bath  metal. 

A combination  of  copper  and  zinc  makes  bell  metal. 

A combination  of  tin  and  copper  makes  bronze  metal. 

A combination  of  tin,  antimony,  copper  and  bismuth  makes 
britannia  metal. 

A combination  of  tin  and  copper  makes  cannon  metal.  ' 

A combination  of  copper  and  zinc  makes  Dutch  gold. 

A combination  of  copper,  nickel  and  zinc,  with  sometimes  7 
little  iron  and  tin  makes  German  silver. 

A combination  of  gold  and  copper  makes  standard  gold. 

A combination  of  gold,  copper  and  silver  makes  old-standard 
gold. 

A combination  of  tin  and  copper  makes  gun  metal. 

A combination  of  copper  and  zinc  makes  mosaic  gold. 

A combination  of  tin  and  lead  makes  pewter. 

A combination  of  lead  and  a little  arsenic  makes  sheet  metal. 
A combination  of  silver  and  copper  makes  standard  silver. 

A combination  of  tin  and  lead  makes  solder. 

A combination  of  lead  and  antimony  makes  type  metal. 

A combination  of  copper  and  arsenic  makes  white  copper. 

How  to  Mix  Printing  Inks  and  Paints  in  the 
Preparation  of  Tints. 

THE  FIRST  NAMED  COLOR  ALWAYS  PREDOMINATES. 

Mixing  dark  green  and  purple  makes  bottle  green. 

Mixing  white  and  medium  yellow  makes  buff  tint. 

Mixing  red,  black  and  blue  makes  dark  brown. 

Mixing  bronze,  blue,  lemon  yellow  and  black  makes  darkgreen. 
Mixing  white,  medium  yellow  and  black  makes  drab  tint. 
Mixing  white,  lake  and  lemon  yellow  makes  flesh  tint. 

393 


MIXING  INKS  AND  PAINTS. 


Mixing  lemon  yellow  and  bronze  blue  makes  grass-green. 

Mixing  white  and  black  makes  gray  tint. 

Mixing  white  and  purple  makes  lavender  tint. 

Mixing  red,  black  and  medium  yellow  makes  maroon. 

Mixing  lake  and  purple  makes  magenta. 

Mixing  medium  yellow  and  purple  makes  olive  green. 

Mixing  medium  yellow  and  red  makes  orange. 

Mixing  white,  ultramarine  blue  and  black  makes  pearl  tint. 

Mixing  white  and  lake  makes  pink. 

Mixing  ultramarine  blue  and  lake  makes  purple. 

Mixing  orange,  lake  and  purple  makes  russet. 

Mixing  medium  yellow,  red  and  white  makes  sienna. 

Mixing  white  and  ultramarine  blue  makes  sky  blue. 

Mixing  ultramarine  blue,  black  and  white  makes  slate. 

Mixing  Vermillion  and  black  makes  Turkey  red. 

Mixing  white,  yellow,  red  and  black  makes  umber. 

Durability  of  Different  Woods. 

Experiments  have  been  lately  made  by  driving  sticks,  made  of 
different  woods,  each  two  feet  long  and  one  and  one-half  inches 
square,  into  the  ground,  only  one-half  an  inch  projecting  out- 
ward. It  was  found  that  in  five  years  all  those  made  of  oak,  elm, 
ash,  fir,  soft  mahogany,  and  nearly  every  variety  of  pine,  were 
totally  rotten.  Larch,  hard  pine  and  teak  wood  were  decayed  on 
the  outside  only,  while  acacia,  with  the  exception  of  being  also 
slightly  attacked  on  the  exterior,  was  otherwise  sound.  Hard 
mahogany  and  cedar  of  Lebanon  were  in  tolerably  good  con- 
dition; but  only  Virginia  cedar  was  found  as  good  as  when  put 
in  the  ground.  This  is  of  some  importance  to  builders,  showing 
what  woods  should  be  avoided,  and  what  others  used  by  pref- 
erence in  underground  work. 

The  duration  of  wood  when  kept  dry  is  very  great,  as  beams 
still  exist  which  are  known  to  be  nearly  i,ioo  years  old.  Piles 
driven  by  the  Romans  prior  to  the  Christian  era  have  been  ex- 
amined of  late,  and  found  to  be  perfectly  sound  after  an  immer- 
sion of  nearly  2,000  years. 

The  wood  of  some  tools  will  last  longer  than  the  metals,  as  in 
spades,  hoes  and  plows.  In  other  tools  the  wood  is  first  gone, 
as  in  wagons,  wheelbarrows  and  machines.  Such  wood  should 
be  painted  or  oiled;  the  paint  not  only  looks  well,  but  preserves 
the  wood;  petroleum  oil  is  as  good  as  any  other. 

Hard  wood  stumps  decay  in  five  or  six  years;  spruce  stumps 
decay  in  about  the  same  time;  hemlock  stumps  in  eight  to  nine 
years;  cedar,  eight  to  nine  years;  pine  stumps,  never. 

Cedar,  oak,  yellow  pine  and  chestnut  are  the  most  durable 
woods  in  dry  places. 

Timber  intended  for  posts  is  rendered  almost  proof  against  rot 
by  thorough  seasoning,  charring  and  immersion  in  hot  coal  tar. 


specific  Gravity  of  Various 

A gallon  of  water  or  wine  weighs  lo  lbs, 
the  basis  of  the  following  table. 


Substances. 

and  this  is  taken  as 


LIQUIDS. 

TIMBER. 

METALS. 

Water 

100 

Cork 

24 

Zinc 

Sea  water 

103 

Poplar 

38 

C^ast  iron 

Dead  Sea 

124 

Fif 

55 

Tin 

Alcohol 

84 

81 

Bar  iron 

Olive  oil 

....  92 

Pear 

66 

Steel 

Tujpentine 

99 

Walnut 

67 

Copper 

Wine  

100 

Cherry. . . . . , 

72 

Brass 

Urine 

101 

Maple 

75 

Silver 

Cider 

102 

Apple 

79 

Lead 

Beer 

102 

Ash 

84 

Mercury 

Woman’s  milk. . . . 

....  102 

Beech 

85 

Gold 

Cow’s  “ .... 

....  103 

Mahogany  . . 

106 

Platina 

Goat’s  “ .... 

104 

Oak 

117 

Porter 

....  104 

Ebony 

133 

PRECIOUS 

STONES. 

Emerald 

...  277.5  1 

Diamond . . . 

.......  353.0 

1 Garnet 

719 

721 

729 

779 

783 

869 

840 


1,357 

1,926 


265.3 

, 1 Topaz. 

. 401.1 

1 Ruby. . . 

77 

SUNDRIES. 

Peat  . 

..  133 

Porcelain 

93 

Opium 

..  134 

Stone 

94 

Honey 

..  145 

Marble. . , 

117 

Ivory 

..  183 

Granite. . 

120 

Brick 

..  200 

Chalk  .... 

130 

Sulphur 

..  203 

Glass. ... 

428.3 


Indigo 77 

Gunpowder 

Butter 

Ice 

Clay 

Coal 

Weiglit  in  Cubic  .Keet. 

Lbs.  per 
Cub.  Ft. 

15 

36 

51 

56 

62 

66 

70 

70 

72 

80 


226 

252 


278 

279 
289 


Cork 

Cedar 

Beech 

Butter 

Water 

Mahogany  . 

Ice . . 

Oak 

Clay 

Coal 


Brick  . . . 
Stone. . . 
Granite  . 
Glass  ... 

Iron 

Copper. . 
Silver. . . 
Lead. . .. 
Gold.... 


Lbs.  per 
Cub.  Ft. 
. 120 
. 150 
. 166 
. 172 
. 470 
. 520 
. 630 
..  680 
, 1,155 


OTensile  and  Xransverse  Strensrtb 

A crushing  force  of  i,ooo  lbs.  per  square  inch  on  a bar  i inch 


square,  and 

12  inches  long, 

gives  the 

following 

ratios  of 

strength: 

Tensile. 

Transverse.  I 

Tensile 

. Transverse. 

Stone 

..  100 

10 

Cast  iron. . . , 

158 

20 

Glass 

..  123 

10 

1 Timber 

1,900 

85 

Xensile  Xest  of  Steel. 

BAR  8 INCHES  LONG. 

Sq.  Inch  Strain,  Tons 

Extension, 

Sq.  Inch 

Strain,  Tons 

Extension, 

Section.  per  Sq.  Inch. 

Inches. 

Section. 

per  Sq.  Inch. 

Inches. 

1.0000 

13.93 

.01 

.8325 

28  35 

1.40 

.9799 

16.96 

.10 

.7088 

27  32 

2.C0 

.9331 

23.43 

.40 

.5541 

25.05 

2.20 

.8741 

27.23 

1.00 

Elastic  Limit. . . 

. 17.40  tons. 

Cohesion 

Maximum  strain 

. 28..35  “ 

Extension. . . 

2714  per  cent. 

Breaking  load... 

. 25.05  “ 

Contraction. 

394 


TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  STEEL,— Continued. 


Taking  the  strength  of  Swedish  iron  at  lOO,  the  tensiU 
strength  of  steel  compares  thus: 

Swedish  iron 100  I Cannon  steel ]73 

Boiler  steel 118  | Spring  steel 202 

Pecuniary  Value  of  Metals* 

Few  people  have  any  idea  of  the  value  of  precious  metals  other 
than  gold,  silver  and  copper,  which  are  commonly  supposed  to 
he  the  most  precious  of  all.  There  are  many  metals  more  valuable 
and  infinitely  rarer.  The  following  table  gives  the  names  and 
prices  of  all  the  known  metals  of  pecuniary  worth: 

Price  per 
Av.  pound. 

$ 330  00 

225  00 

225  00 

150  00 

130  00 

115  00 

64  00 


Price  per 
Av.  pound. 

Vanadium #10,000  OO 

Rubidium 9.070  00 

Zirconium 7,200  00 

Lithium 7,000  00 

Glucium 5,400  00 

Calcium 4,500  00 

Strontium 4,200  00 

Terbium 4,080  00 

Vitrium.,, 4,080  00 

Erbium 3,400  00 

Cerium 3,400  00 

Didymium 3,200  00 

Indium 3,200  00 

Ruthenium 2,400  00 

Rhodium 2,300  00 

Niobium 2,300  00 

“ ■ 1,800  00 

1,400  00 
1,300  00 
1,090  00 
900  00 
689  00 
500  00 


Barium. 
Palladium  . 
Osmium  . . . 

Iridium 

Uranium  . . 
Titanium  . . 
Chromium. 


Gold 

Molybdenum  . 

Thallium 

Platinum 

Manganese  . . . 

Tungstein 

Magnesium.  . . 

Potassium 

Aluminum. . . . 

Silver 

Cobalt 

Sodium 

Nickel 

Cadmium 

Bismuth 

Mercury 

Arsenic ...... 

Tin 

Copper 

Antimony 

Zinc 

Lead 


64  00 
32  00 
20  00 
16  00 
8 00 
5 00 
4 00 
2 50 
95 
50 
25 
25 
16 
11 
08 


VALUE  OF  METALS  AS  CONDUCTORS. 


Heat. 

Electricity. 

Heat. 

Electricity. 

Gold 

....  100 

94 

Iron 

37 

16 

Platinum. . 

....  98 

16 

Zinc 

36 

29 

Silver 

....  97 

74 

Tin 

30 

15 

Copper. . . . 

100 

Lead 

18 

8 

TENACITY  OF  METALS. 

A wire,  0.84.  of  a line  in  diameter,  will  sustain  weights  as 
follows: 


Lead. 
Tin. .. 
Zinc. . 
Gold. , 


28  lbs. 
35  “ 

no  “ 

. 150  “ 


Silver 187  lbs. 

Platinum 274  “ 

Copper 302  “ 

Iron 549 


FLUID  DENSITY  OF  METALS. 


Zinc. 
Iron. 
Tin. . 


6.48  1 Copper 8.22 

6.88  Silver 9.51 

7.03  1 Lead 10.37 

395 


No. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

85 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 

53 

54 


TABLE  OF  SQUARES  AND  CUBES 

OF 

ALL  NUMBERS  FROM  1 TO  500. 


Squares. 

Cubes. 

No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

1 

1 

55 

30  25 

166  375 

4 

8 

56 

31  36 

175  616 

9 

27 

57 

32  49 

185  193 

16 

64 

58 

33  64 

195  112 

25 

1 25 

59 

34  81 

205  379 

36 

2 16 

60 

36  00 

216  000 

49 

3 43 

61 

37  21 

226  981 

64 

5 12 

62 

38  44 

238  328 

81 

7 29 

63 

39  69 

250  047 

1 00 

1 000 

64 

40  96 

262  144 

1 21 

1 331 

65 

42  25 

274  626 

1 44 

1 728 

66 

43  56 

287  496 

1 69 

2 197 

67 

44  89 

300  763 

1 96 

2 744 

68 

46  24 

314  432 

2 25 

3 375 

69 

47  61 

328  509 

2 56 

4 096 

70 

49  00 

343  000 

2 89 

4 913 

71 

50  41 

357  911 

3 24 

5 832 

72 

51  84 

373  248 

3 61 

6 859 

73 

53  29 

389  017 

4 00 

8 000 

74 

54  76 

405  224 

4 41 

9 261 

75 

56  25 

421  875 

4 84 

10  648 

76 

57  76 

438  976 

5 29 

12  167 

77 

59  29 

456  533 

5 76 

13  824 

78 

60  84 

474  552 

6 25 

15  625 

79 

62  41 

493  039 

6 76 

17  576 

80 

64  00 

512  000 

7 29 

19  683 

81 

65  81 

531  441 

7 84 

21  952 

82 

67  24 

551  368 

8 41 

24  389 

83 

68  89 

571  787 

9 00 

27  000 

84 

70  56 

592  704 

9 61 

29  791 

85 

72  25 

614  125 

10  24 

32  768 

86 

73  96 

636  056 

10  89 

35  937 

87 

75  69 

658  503 

11  56 

39  304 

88 

77  44 

681  472 

12  25 

42  875 

89 

79  21 

704  969 

12  96 

46  656 

90 

81  00 

729  000 

13  69 

50  653 

91 

82  81 

753  571 

14  44 

54  872 

92 

84  64 

778  688 

15  21 

59  319 

93 

86  49 

• 804  357 

16  00 

64  000 

94 

88  36 

830  584 

16  81 

68  921 

95 

90  25 

857  375 

17  64 

74  088 

96 

92  16 

884  736 

18  49 

79  507 

97 

94  09 

912  673 

19  36 

85  184 

98 

96  04 

941  192 

20  25 

91  125 

99 

98  01 

970  299 

21  16 

97  336 

100 

1 00  00 

1 000  000 

22  09 

103  823 

101 

1 02  01 

1 030  301 

23  04 

110  592 

102 

1 04  04 

1 061  298 

24  01 

117  649 

103 

1 06  09 

1 092  727 

25  00 

125  000 

104 

1 08  16 

1 124  864 

26  01 

132  651 

105 

1 10  25 

1 157  625 

27  04 

140  608 

106 

1 12  36 

1 191  016 

28  09 

148  877 

107 

1 14  49 

1 225  043 

29  16 

157  464 

108 

1 16  64 

1 259  712 

396 


TABLE  OF  SQUARES  AND  CVBES—Con^inu^d. 


No.  1 Squares. 

Cubes. 

No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

109 

1 18  81 

1 295  029 

169 

2 85  61 

4 826  8(i9 

110 

1 21  00 

1 331  000 

170 

2 89  00 

4 913  000 

111 

1 23  21 

1 367  631 

171 

2 92  41 

5 000  211 

112 

1 25  44 

1 404  928 

172 

2 95  84 

5 088  448 

113 

1 27  69 

1 442  897 

173 

2 99  29 

5 177  717 

114 

1 29  96 

1 481  544 

174 

3 02  76 

5 268  ()24 

115 

1 32  25 

1 520  875 

175 

3 06  25 

5 359  375 

116 

1 34  56 

1 560  896 

176 

3 09  76 

5 451  776 

117 

1 36  89 

1 601  613 

177 

3 13  29 

5 545  233 

118 

1 39  24 

1 643  032 

178 

3 16  84 

5 639  752 

119 

1 41  61 

1 685  159 

179 

3 20  41 

5 735  339 

120 

1 44  00 

1 728  000 

180 

3 24  00 

5 832  01  »0 

121 

1 46  41 

1 771  561 

181 

3 27  61 

5 929  741 

122 

1 48  84 

1 815  848 

182 

3 31  24 

6 028  568 

123 

1 51  29 

1 860  867 

183 

3 34  89 

6 128  487 

124 

1 53  76 

1 906  624 

184 

3 38  56 

6 229  504 

125 

1 56  25 

1 953  125 

185 

3 42  25 

6 331  625 

126 

1 58  76 

2 000  376 

186 

3 45  96 

6 434  856 

127 

1 61  29 

2 048  383 

187 

3 49  69 

6 539  203 

128 

1 63  84 

2 097  152 

188 

3 53  44 

6 644  672 

129 

1 66  41 

2 146  689 

189 

3 57  21 

6 751  269 

130 

1 69  00 

2 197  GOO 

190 

3 61  00 

6 859  OOO 

131 

1 71  61 

2 248  091 

191 

3 64  81 

6 967  871 

132 

1 74  24 

2 299  968 

192 

3 68  64 

7 077  888 

133 

1 76  89 

2 352  637 

193 

3 72  49 

7 189  057 

134 

1 79  56 

2 406  104 

194 

3 76  36 

7 301  384 

135 

1 82  25 

2 460  375 

195 

3 80  25 

7 414  875 

136 

1 84  96 

2 515  456 

196 

3 84  16 

7 529  536 

137 

1 87  69 

2 571  353 

197 

3 88  09 

7 645  373 

138 

1 90  44 

2 628  072 

198 

3 92  04 

7 762  392 

139 

1 93  21 

2 685  619 

199 

3 96  01 

7 880  599 

140 

1 96  00 

2 744  000 

200 

4 00  00 

.8  000  000 

141 

1 98  81 

2 803  221 

201 

4 04  01 

8 120  601 

142 

2 01  64 

2 863  288 

202 

4 08  04 

8 242  408 

143 

2 04  49 

2 924  207 

203 

4 12  09 

8 365  427 

144 

2 07  36 

2 985  984 

204 

4 16  16 

8 489  664 

145 

2 10  25 

3 048  625 

205 

4 20  35 

8 615  125 

146 

2 13  16 

3 112  136 

206 

4 24  36 

8 741  816 

147 

2 16  09 

3 176  523 

207 

4 28  49 

8 869  743 

148 

2 19  04 

3 241  792 

2(^8 

4 32  64 

8 998  912 

149 

2 22  01 

3 307  949 

2 9 

4 36  81 

9 129  329 

150 

2 25  00 

3 375  000 

210 

4 41  00 

9 261  00 J 

151 

2 28  (•! 

3 442  951 

211 

4 45  21 

9 393  931 

152 

2 31  04 

3 511  808 

212 

4 49  44 

9 528  128 

153 

2 34  09 

3 581  577 

213 

4 53  69 

9 663  597 

154 

2 37  16 

3 652  264 

214 

4 57  96 

9 800  344 

155 

2 40  25 

3 723  875 

215 

4 62  25 

9 938  375 

156 

2 43  36 

3 796  416 

216 

4 66  56 

10  077  646 

157 

2 46  49 

3 869  893 

217 

4 70  89 

10  218  313 

158 

2 49  64 

3 944  312 

218 

4 75  24 

10  360  232 

159 

2 52  81 

4 019  679 

219 

4 79  61 

10  503  459 

160 

2 56  00 

4 096  000 

220 

4 84  00 

10  648  000 

161 

2 59  21 

4 173  281 

221 

4 88  41 

10  793  861 

162 

2 62  44 

4 251  528 

222 

4 92  84 

10  941  048 

163 

2 65  69 

4 330  747 

223 

4 97  29 

11  089  567 

164 

2 68  96 

4 410  944 

224 

5 01  76 

11  239  424 

165 

2 72  25 

4 492  125 

225 

5 06  25 

11  390  625 

166 

2 75  56 

4 574  296 

226 

5 10  76 

11  543  176 

167 

2 78  89 

4 657  463 

227 

5 15  29 

11  697  083 

168 

2 82  24 

4 741  632 

228 

5 19  84 

11  852  352 

TABLE  OF  SQUARES  AND  CVBES-Contmued. 


No, 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

229 

6 24  41 

12  008  989 

289 

8 35  21 

24  137  569 

230 

5 29  00 

12  167  000 

290 

8 41  00 

24  389  000 

231 

5 33  61 

12  326  391 

291 

8 46  81 

24  642  171 

232 

5 38  24 

12  487  168 

292 

8 52  64 

24  897  088 

233 

5 42  89 

12  649  337 

293 

8 58  49 

25  453  757 

234 

6 47  56 

12  812  904 

294 

8 64  36 

25  412  184 

235 

5 52  25 

12  977  875 

295 

8 70  25 

25  G72  375 

236 

5 56  96 

13  144  2.56 

296 

8 76  16 

25  934  336 

237 

5 61  69 

13  312  053 

297 

8 82  09 

26  m 073 

238 

5 66  44 

13  481  272 

298 

8 88  04 

26  463  592 

239 

5 71  21 

13  651  919 

299 

8 94  01 

26  730  899 

240 

5 76  00 

13  824  000 

300 

9 00  00 

27  000  000 

241 

5 80  81 

13  997  521 

301 

9 06  01 

27  270  901 

242 

5 85  64 

14  172  4S8 

302 

9 12  Ot 

27  543  608 

213 

5 90  49 

14  348  907 

303 

9 18  09 

27  818  127 

244 

5 95  36 

14  526  784 

304 

9 24  16 

28  094  464 

245 

6 00  25 

14  706  125 

305 

9 30  25 

28  372  625 

246 

6 05  16 

14  886  936 

306 

9 36  36 

28  652  616 

247 

6 10  09 

15  069  223 

307 

9 42  49 

28  934  443 

248 

6 15  04 

15  252  992 

308 

9 48  64 

29  218  112 

249 

6 20  01 

15  438  249 

309 

9 54  81 

29  503  629 

2.50 

6 25  05 

15  625  000 

310 

9 61  00 

29  791  000 

251 

6 30  01 

15  813  251 

311 

9 67  21 

30  080  231 

252 

6 35  04 

16  003  008 

312 

9 73  44 

30  371  328 

253 

6 40  09 

16  194  277 

313 

9 79  69 

30  664  297 

254  ' 

6 45  16 

16  387  064 

314 

9 85  96 

30  959  144 

255 

6 50  25 

16  581  375 

315 

8 92  25 

31  255  875 

2.56 

6 55  36 

16  777  216 

316 

9 98  56 

31  554  496 

257 

6 60  49 

16  974  593 

317 

10  04  89 

31  855  013 

258 

6 65  64 

17  173  512 

318 

10  11  24 

32  157  432 

259 

6 70  81 

17  373  979 

319 

10  17  61 

32  461  759 

260 

. 6 76  00 

17  576  000 

320 

10  24  00 

32  768  000 

261 

6 81  21 

17  779  581 

321 

10  30  41 

S3  076  161 

262 

6 86  44 

17  984  728 

322 

10  36  84 

33  386  248 

263 

6 91  69 

18  191  447 

323 

10  43  29 

33  698  267 

264 

6 96  96 

18  399  744 

324 

10  49  76 

34  012  224 

265 

7 02  25 

18  609  625 

325 

10  56  25 

34  328  125 

266 

7 06  56 

18  821  096 

326 

10  62  76 

34  645  976 

267 

7 12  89 

19  034  163 

327 

10  69  29 

34  965  783 

268 

7 18  24 

19  248  832 

328 

10  75  84 

35  287  552 

269 

7 23  61 

19  465  109 

329 

10  82  41 

35  611  289 

270 

7 29  00 

19  683  000 

330 

10  89  00 

35  937  000 

271 

7 34  41 

19  902  511 

331 

10  95  61 

36  264  691 

272 

7 39  84 

20  123  648 

332 

11  02  24 

36  594  368 

273 

7 45  29 

20  346  417 

333 

11  08  89 

36  926  037 

274 

7 50  76 

20  570  824 

334 

11  15  56 

37  259  704 

275 

7 56  25 

20  796  875 

335 

11  22  25 

37  595  375 

276 

7 61  76 

21  024  576 

336 

11  28  96 

37  933  056 

277 

7 67  29 

21  253  933 

337 

11  35  69 

38  272  753 

278 

7 72  84 

21  484  952 

338 

11  42  44 

38  614  472 

279 

7 78  41 

21  717  639 

339 

11  49  21 

38  958  219 

280 

7 84  00 

21  952  000 

340 

11  56  00 

39  304  000 

281 

7 89  61 

22  188  041 

341 

11  62  81 

39  651  821 

282 

7 95  24 

22  425  768 

342 

11  69  64 

40  001  688 

283 

8 00  89 

22  665  187 

343 

11  76  49 

40  353  607 

284 

8 06  56 

22  906  304 

344 

11  83  36 

40  707  584 

285 

8 12  25 

23  149  125 

345 

11  90  25 

41  m 625 

286 

8 17  96 

23  393  656 

346 

11  97  16 

41  421  736 

287 

8 23  69 

23  639  903 

347 

12  04  09 

41  781  923 

288 

8 29  44 

23  887  872 

348 

12  11  04 

42  144  192 

398 


TABLE  OF  SQUARES  AND  CUBES— 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

349 

12  18  01 

42  508  519 

409 

16  72  81 

68  417  929 

350 

12  25  00 

42  875  0(10 

410 

16  81  00 

68  921  (jOO 

351 

12  32  01 

43  243  551 

411 

16  89  21 

69  426  531 

352 

12  39  04 

43  614  208 

412 

16  97  44 

69  934  528 

&33 

12  46  09 

43  986  977 

413 

17  05  69 

70  444  997 

354 

12  53  16 

44  361  864 

414 

17  13  96 

70  957  914 

355 

12  60  25 

44  738  875 

415 

17  22  25 

71  473  375 

356 

12  67  36 

45  118  016 

416 

17  30  56 

71  991  296 

357 

12  74  49 

45  499  293 

417 

17  38  89 

72  511  713 

358 

12  81  64 

45  882  7'2 

418 

17  47  24 

73  034  632 

359 

12  88  81 

46  268  279 

419 

ir  55  61 

73  560  059 

3G0 

12  96  00 

46  656  090 

420 

17  64  00 

74  088  000 

3bl 

13  03  21 

47  045  881 

421 

17  72  41 

74  618  461 

302 

13  10  44 

47  437  928 

422 

17  80  84 

75  151  418 

3o3 

13  17  69 

47  832  147 

423 

17  89  29 

75  686  937 

36i 

13  24  96 

48  228  544 

424 

37  97  76 

76  225  024 

365 

13  32  25 

48  627  125 

425 

18  06  25 

76  765  625 

566 

13  39  56 

49  027  896 

426 

18  14  76 

77  308  776 

367 

13  46  89 

49  430  863 

427 

18  23  29 

77  854  483 

368 

13  54  24 

49  836  032 

428 

18  31  84 

78  402  752 

3 >9 

13  61  61 

50  243  409 

429 

18  40  40 

78  9.53  5^9 

370 

13  69  00 

50  653  000 

i 430 

18  49  00 

79  507  000 

37  L 

13  76  41 

51  C64  811 

1 431 

18  57  61 

81)  062  991 

372 

13  83  84 

51  478  848 

432 

18  63  24 

80  621  568 

373 

13  91  29 

51  895  117 

1 483 

18  74  89 

81  182  737 

374 

13  98  76 

52  313  624 

' 431 

18  83  56 

81  746  504 

375 

14  06  25 

52  734  375 

435 

38  92  25 

82  312  875 

376 

14  13  76 

53  157  376 

436 

19  00  96 

82  881  856 

377 

14  21  29 

53  582  633 

437 

19  09  69 

83  453  453 

878 

14  28  84 

54  010  152 

438 

19  18  44 

84  027  672 

379 

14  36  41 

54  439  939 

430 

19  27  21 

84  604  519 

380 

14  44  00 

54  872  000 

440 

19  36  00 

85  184  000 

381 

14  51  61 

55  306  341 

441 

19  44  81 

85  766  121 

3>2 

14  59  24 

55  742  968 

442 

39  53  64 

86  350  888 

383 

14  66  89 

56  181  887 

443 

19  62  49 

86  938  307 

384 

14  74  56 

56  623  104 

444 

19  71  36 

87  528  284 

385 

14  82  25 

56  066  625 

445 

19  80  25 

88  121  125 

386 

14  89  96 

57  512  456 

416 

39  89  16 

88  716  536 

387 

14  97  69 

57  960  603 

447 

20  98  09 

89  314  623 

388 

15  05  44 

58  411  072 

418 

20  07  04 

89  915  392 

389 

15  13  21 

58  863  869 

449 

20  16  01 

90  518  849 

390 

15  21  00 

59  319  000 

450 

20  2a  00 

91  125  000 

391 

15  28  81 

59  776  471 

451 

20  34  01 

91  733  751 

392 

15  36  64 

60  236  288 

452 

20  43  04 

92  345  408 

393 

15  44  49 

60  698  457 

453 

20  52  09 

92  959  677 

394 

15  52  36 

61  162  984 

451 

20  61  16 

93  576  664 

395 

15  60  25 

61  629  875 

455 

20  70  25 

94  396  375 

31-6 

15  68  16 

62  (99  1.36 

456 

20  79  38 

94  818  816 

397 

15  76  09 

62  570  773 

457 

20  88  49 

95  443  993 

393 

15  84  04 

63  044  792 

458 

21  97  64 

96  071  9!2 

399 

15  92  01 

63  521  199 

459 

21  06  81 

96  702  579 

400 

16  00  00 

64  000  000 

460 

21  16  00 

97  336  000 

401 

16  08  01 

64  481  201 

461 

21  25  21 

97  972  181 

402 

16  61  04 

64  964  808 

462 

21  31  44 

98  611  128 

403 

16  24  09 

65  450  827 

463 

21  43  69 

99  252  847 

404 

16  32  16 

6 5 939  264 

464 

21  62  96 

99  897  344 

405 

16  40  25 

66  430  125 

465 

21  62  25 

100  554  625 

406 

16  48  36 

66  923  416 

466 

21  71  56 

101  394  696 

407 

16  56  49 

67  419  143 

467 

21  80  89 

101  847  563 

4 '8 

16  64  64 

67  917  321 

468 

21  90  24 

102  503  232 

399 


TABLE  OF  SQUARES  AND  CUBES-^  a^c/uc/eJ. 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

469 

21  99  61 

103  161  709 

485 

23  52  26 

114  084  125 

470 

22  09  00 

103  823  000 

486 

23  61  96 

114  791  256 

471 

22  18  41 

104  487  111 

487 

23  71  69 

115  501  303 

472 

22  27  84 

105  154  048 

488 

23  81  44 

116  214  572 

473 

22  37  29 

105  823  817 

489 

23  91  21 

116  930  169 

474 

22  46  76 

106  496  424 

490 

24  01  00 

117  649  000 

475 

22  56  25 

107  171  875 

491 

24  10  81 

118  370  771 

476 

22  65  76 

107  850  176 

492 

24  20  64 

119  095  488 

477 

22  75  29 

108  531  333 

493 

24  30  49 

119  823  157 

473 

22  84  84 

109  215  352 

494 

24  40  36 

120  553  784 

479 

22  94  41 

109  902  239 

495 

24  50  25 

121  287  375 

480 

23  04  00 

no  592  000 

49.3 

24  60  16 

122  023  936 

481 

23  13  61 

111  284  641 

497 

24  70  09 

122  763  473 

482 

23  23  24 

111  980  168 

498 

24  80  04 

123  505  992 

483 

23  32  89 

112  678  587 

499 

24  90  01 

124  251  499 

484 

23  42  56 

113  379  904 

500 

25  00  00 

325  000  000 

LENGTH  OF  CIRCULAR  ARC. 
Huygens’  approximation  to  length  of  a circular  arc: 
A = Chord  of  any  circular  arc. 

B = Chord  of  half  that  arc. 

R = Radius  of  the  circular  arc. 

L = Length  of  the  circular  arc.  \ 


3 


Or,  as  it  is  usually  written, 

L = 2 B + ><  (2  B — A). 

WEDDING  ANNIVERSARIES. 

First,  cotton;  second,  paper;  third,  leather;  fifth,  wooden; 
seventh,  woolen;  tenth,  tin;  twelfth,  silk  and  fine  linen;  fifteenth, 
crystal;  twentieth,  china;  twenty-fifth,  silver;  thirtieth,  pearl; 
fortieth,  ruby;  fiftieth,  golden;  seventy-fifth,  diamond. 

YOUR  BIRTHDAY. 

Born  on  Monday,  fair  in  face; 

Born  on  Tuesday,  full  of  God’s  grace-, 

Born  on  Wednesday,  the  best  to  be  had; 

Born  on  Thursday,  merry  and  glad; 

Born  on  Friday,  worthily  given; 

Born  on  Saturday,  work  hard  for  a living; 

Born  on  Sundaj^,  shall  never  know  want. 

An  indenture  is  a deed  or  instrument  in  writing.  Originally 

such  writings  were  made  in  duplicate  upon  a sheet  of  paper  which  was  afterwards 
indented  or  cut  apart  in  a waved  or  notched  line.  One  piece  was  given  to  each  of 
the  parties  to  the  contract,  and  when  the  two  were  put  together  they  would,  of 
course,  fit  into  each  other  exactly.  This  mode  of  indenture  has  passed  out  of  use, 
but  the  term  survives. 


400 


NATURAL  SINES,  ETC. 


NO 

(L’ 

P 

Sine. 

Cover. 

Cosecnt. 

Tangt. 

Cotang. 

Secant. 

Versin, 

Cosin. 

bi) 

OJ 

P 

0 

.00 

1.00000 

Infinite. 

.0 

Infinite. 

1.00000 

.0 

1.00000 

90 

1 

.01745 

.98254 

57.2986 

.01745 

57.2899 

1.00015 

.0001 

.99984 

89 

2 

.03489 

.96510 

28.6537 

.03492 

28.6362 

1.00060 

.0006 

.99939 

88 

.05233 

.94766 

19.1073 

.05240 

19.0811 

1.00137 

.0013 

.99862 

87 

4 

.06975 

.93024 

14.3355 

.06992 

14.3006 

1.00244 

.0024 

.99756 

86 

6 

.08715 

.91284 

11.4737 

.08748 

11.4300 

1.00381 

.0038 

.99619 

85 

6 

.10452 

.89547 

9.5667 

.10510 

9.5143 

1.00550 

.0054 

.99452 

84 

7 

.12186 

.87813 

8.2055 

.12278 

8.1443 

1.00750 

.0074 

.99254 

83 

8 

.13917 

.86082 

7.1852 

.14054 

7.1153 

1.00982 

.0097 

.99026 

82 

9 

.15643 

.84356 

6.3924 

.15838 

6.3137 

1.01246 

.0123 

.98768 

81 

10 

.17364 

.82635 

5.7587 

.17632 

5.6712 

1.01542 

.0151 

.98480 

80 

11 

.19080 

.80919 

5.24(8 

.19438 

5.1445 

1.01871 

.0183 

.98162 

79 

12 

.20791 

.79208 

4.8097 

.21255 

4.7046 

1.02234 

.0218 

.97814 

78 

13 

.22495 

.77504 

4.4454 

.23086 

4.3314 

1.02630 

.0256 

.97437 

77 

14 

.24192 

.75807 

4.1335 

.24932 

4.0107 

1.03061 

.0297 

.97029 

76 

15 

.25881 

.74118 

3.8637 

.26794 

3.7320 

1.03527 

.0340 

.96592 

75 

16 

.27563 

.72436 

3.6279 

.28674 

3.4874 

1.04029 

.0387 

.96126 

74 

17 

.29237 

.70702 

3.4203 

.30573 

3.2708 

1.04569 

.0436 

.95630 

73 

18 

.30901 

.69098 

3.2360 

.32491 

3.0776 

1.05146 

.0489 

.95105 

72 

19 

.32556 

.67443 

3.  (>7 15 

.34432 

2.9042 

1 .05762 

.0544 

.94551 

71 

20 

.34202 

.65797 

2.9238 

.36397 

2.7474 

1.06417 

.0603 

.93969 

70 

21 

.35836 

.64163 

2 7904 

.38386 

2.6050 

1.07114 

.0664 

.93358 

69 

22 

.37460 

.62539 

2 6694 

.40402 

2.4750 

1.07853 

.0728 

.92718 

68 

23 

.39073 

.60926 

2.5593 

.42447 

2 3558 

1.08636 

.0794 

.92050 

67 

24 

-40673 

.59326 

2 4585 

.44522 

2. 2460 

1.09463 

.0864 

.91354 

66 

25 

.42261 

.57738 

2.3662 

. 46630 

2.1445 

1.10337 

.0936 

.90630 

65 

26 

.43837 

.56162 

2.2811 

.48773 

2.0503 

1.11260 

.1012 

.89879 

64 

27 

.45399 

.54600 

2.2026 

.50952 

1.9626 

1.12232 

T089 

.89100 

63 

28 

.46947 

.53052 

2.1300 

.53170 

1-8807 

1.13257 

.1170 

.88294 

62 

29 

.48480 

.51519 

2.0626 

.55430 

1.8040 

1.14335 

.1253 

.87461 

61 

30 

.50000 

.50000 

2.0000 

.57735 

1.7320 

1.15470 

.1339 

.86602 

60 

31 

.51503 

.48496 

1.9416 

.60086 

1.6042 

1.16663 

.1428 

.85716 

59 

32 

.52991 

.47008 

1.8870 

.62486 

1.6003 

1.17917 

.1519 

.84804 

58 

33 

.51463 

.45536 

1.8360 

.64940 

1.5398 

1.19236 

.1613 

.83867 

57 

34 

.55919 

.44080 

l.)882 

.67450 

1.4825 

1.20621 

.1709 

.82903 

56 

35 

.57357 

.42642 

1.7434 

.70020 

1.4281 

1.22077 

.1808 

.81915 

55 

36 

.58778 

.41221 

1.7013 

.72654 

1.3763 

1.23606 

.1909 

.80901 

54 

37 

.60181 

.39318 

1.6616 

.75355 

1.3270 

1.25213 

.2013 

.79863 

53 

38 

.61566 

.38433 

1.6242 

.78128 

1.2799 

1.26901 

.2119 

.78801 

52 

39 

.62932 

.37067 

1.5890 

.80978 

1.2348 

1.28675 

.2228 

.77714 

51 

40 

.64278 

.35721 

1.5557 

.83909 

1.1917 

1.30540 

.2339 

.76604 

50 

41 

.65605 

.34394 

1.5242 

.86928 

1.1503 

1.32501 

.2452 

.75470 

49 

42 

.66913 

.33086 

1.4944 

.90040 

1.1106 

1.34563 

.2568 

.74314 

48 

43 

.68199 

.31800 

1.4662 

.93251 

1.0723 

1.36732 

.2686 

.73135 

47 

44 

.69465 

.30534 

1.4395 

.96568 

1.0355 

1.39016 

.2806 

.71933 

46 

45 

.70710 

.29289 

1.4142 

1.00000 

1.0000 

1.41421 

.2928 

.70710 

45 

Cosin. 

Versin. 

Secant. 

Cotang. 

Tangt. 

Cosecnt. 

Cover. 

Sine. 

The  term  bankrupt  originated  in  connection  with  the  money- 
changers of  Italy.  They  sat  in  the  market-place  with  their  money  displayed  on  a 
bench  (or  banc,  as  it  was  called)  before  them.  When  one  of  these  financial  gentle- 
men failed  his  banc  (or  bench)  was  said  to  be  broken,  and  he  was  styled  a bank- 
rupt. The  modern  bank  inherits  its  name  from  the  unimposing  money-bench 
(banc)  of  mediaeval  Italy. 


401 


Useful  Information  for  Printers  and  Publishers. 


Standard  Newspaper  Measure. 

The  standard  newspaper  measure,  as  recognized  and  now  in 
general  use,  is  13  ems  pica.  The  standard  of  measurement  of 
all  sizes  of  type  is  the  em  quad,  not  the  letter  m. 

Leads  and  Slugs. 

Leads  are  designated  as  “ — to-pica,”  the  number  being  that 
fraction  of  a pica  which  the  lead  is,  viz.:  a 6-to-pica  lead  is  one- 
sixth  of  a pica  in  thickness,  or  six  6-to-pica’s  are  equal  to  one 
pica;  four  4-to-pica’s  one  pica,  and  so  with  other  sizes  or  thick- 
nesses of  leads. 

Slugs — “Leads”  of  nonpareil  thickness  and  greater  are  called 
slugs,  viz.:  nonpareil  slugs,  brevier  slugs,  pica  slugs,  etc. 

Average  Weight  of  Matter. 

A “piece”  of  solid  matter  13  ems  pica  wide  and  6 inches  long 
will  weigh  about  3%  lbs.,  but,  in  order  to  allow  for  the  sorts 
usually  remaining  in  case,  4^  lbs.  of  type  would  be  required  to 
set  that  amount  of  solid  matter.  When  the  matter  is  to  be  leaded 
the  weight  of  the  type  may  be  reduced  about  one-quarter,  i.  e.,  a 
single  column  of  six-column  folio,  solid,  will  weigh  loj^  lbs.,  re- 
quiring about  13  lbs.  of  type,  while  the  same  length  column, 
leaded  with  6-to-pica  leads,  will  contain  but  7%  lbs.  solid  matter, 
requiring  about  10  lbs.  of  type  to  set  the  same. 

Example — A single  page  of  regular  six-column  folio  or  quarto 
(13x19^)  contains  256^  square  inches  of  matter: 

256^X4%~^I3  (sqfiafe  inches  of  4%  lbs.  of  type)  =86-|-, 
the  number  of  pounds  of  type  required  to  set  that  amount  of  mat- 
ter, including  sorts  in  case. 

How  to  Estimate  for  Body  Type. 

To  estimate  the  quantity  of  type  (solid)  necessary  to  fill  a 
given  space,  multiply  the  number  of  square  inches  by  5^  (esti- 
mated weight,  in  ounces,  of  one  square  inch  of  matter,  including 
sorts  in  case)  divide  the  product  by  16,  and  the  result  will  be  the 
weight  of  type  required.  If  leaded,  a reduction  in  weight  ot 
type  may  be  made  as  above. 

Example — A single  page  of  regular  six-column  folio  or  quarto 
(i2xiqX)  contains  2c6X  square  inches  of  matter: 

256XX5K-i6=86+, 

the  number  of  pounds  of  type  required  to  set  that  amount  of 
matter,  including  sorts  in  case. 

Miscellaneous  Information. 


The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  “ems”  in  a space 
6x13  ems  pica,  also  the  average  number  of  “ems”  in  4 ounces: 


Number  of  Ems  in 

Pearl 

Agate 

No’ pi 

Min’n 

BreVr 

Bourg 

Lg.  Pr 

Sm.  Pi 

Pica 

6x13  Ems  Pica 

368X 

312 

230X 

177 

138?^ 

mVa 

92 

78 

4 Ounces 

196 

165 

132 

100 

78 

61 

61 

43 

35 

402 


Newspaper  Measurement. 

Table  showing  the  number  of  ems  of  the  different  sizes  of 
newspaper  type  in  a line,  the  number  of  lines  necessary  to  make 
1,000  ems,  and  the  length  in  inches.  Also  the  number  of  ems 
in  the  regular  lengths  of  columns: 


13  Ems  Pica, 

6 ^ 

c £ 

0 K 

0 1:  s a 

Isg 

.2^  0 "o 

Jso' 

.2 -3 
o" 

0 ^ 

'G  0 

00 

WIDTH  OF 

G W 

'‘So 

.3.2 

^ P 0 

fe  a 

Standard  Column. 

d a 

d 8 
5_m 

0 .2 

50  OH 

7 Col 

or  0, 

Ems  i 

8 Col. 

Ems 

9 Col, 

Ems  j 

Agate 

28^ 

So/4 

2% 

5,040 

6,505 

7,180 

7.900 

8,630 

9,310 

Nonpareil 

26 

38^ 

3^ 

4,325 

5,615 

6,160 

6.785 

7,410 

8,020 

Minion  

2214 

45 

3,175 

4,115 

4,515 

4,970 

5,440 

5,885 

Brevier 

513/3 

2,465 

3,200 

3,510 

3,865 

4.220 

4,575 

Bourgeois 

57^ 

714 

1,950 

2,525 

2,770 

3,050 

3,330 

3,615 

Long  Primer 

64>^ 

9 

1,610 

2,085 

2,290 

2,520 

2,755 

2,970 

Leads  for  Newspapers. 

Table  showing  the  number  of  leads,  13  ems  pica  long,  con- 
tained in  one  pound,  and  the  number  required  to  lead  1,000  ems 
of  matter;  together  with  the  number  of  leads  in  a single  col- 
umn of  matter,  regular  sizes  of  newspapers: 


Size  of  Body  Type 
TO  BE  Leaded  with 
6-to-Pica  Leads. 

INo.  Leads 

|to  pound. 

|No.  Leads 

1 1,  coo  Ems. 

4 Col.  Fol. 
or  Quarto. 
Leads  in  1 
Column.  1 

5 Col.  Foil 

or  Quarto.  1 

Leads  in 
Column.  1 

6 Col.  Fol. 
or  Quarto. 
Leads  in 
Column. 

7 Col.  Fol, 
or  Quarto. 
Leads  in 
Column. 

8 Col.  Fol. 

Leads  in 

C olumn. 

9 Col.  Fol. 

Leads  in 

1 Column, 

Agate 

60 

26 

132 

170 

185 

206 

224 

241 

Nonpareil 

60 

29 

125 

162 

179 

197 

215 

233 

Minion 

60 

34 

108 

140 

154 

169 

185 

201 

Brevier 

CO 

40 

99 

128 

141 

1.55 

169 

183 

Bourgeois 

60 

45 

88 

114 

125 

138 

150 

163 

Long  Primer 

CO 

52 

84 

108 

119 

131 

143 

154 

Book  Work  Measurement. 

Table  showing  the  number  of  ems  to  a line,  and  the  number 
of  lines  contained  in  1,000  ems  of  matter,  standard  book  meas- 
ure. Also,  the  space,  in  inches,  filled  by  1,000  ems  of  matter  of 
the  different  measures: 


Size  of  Type. 

21  Ems  Pica. 

23  Ems  Pica. 

25 

Ems  Pica. 

No.  Ems 
in  Line. 

No.  Lines  | 

1,000  Ems. 

No.  Inch’s 
1,000  Ems. 

No.  Ems 
in  Line. 

C/3  t/l 

c £ 

^ § 

0 0 

- 

No.  Inch’s 
1,000  Ems. 

No.  Ems 
in  Line. 

No.  Lines 
1,000  Ems. 

No.  Inch’s 
1,000  Ems. 

Nonpareil  ...... 

42 

24 

2 

46 

2’% 

1% 

50  1 

1 20 

Brevier 

3114 

3.H 

3^ 

35 

2 % 

3% 

37% 

26% 

3 

Long  Primer 

25K 

3 <3^ 

5K 

27% 

36 

5 

30  1 

1 33% 

4% 

Small  Pica 

23 

43M 

6H 

25 

40 

6% 

27% 

36% 

5% 

Pica 

21 

48 

8 

23 

43% 

7% 

25  1 

1 40 

6% 

403 


Leads  for  Book  Work. 


Number  of  4-to-pica  and  6-to-pica  leads,  standard  book 
measures,  contained  in  one  pound,  and  number  required  to  lead 
1,000  ems  of  matter  of  the  standard  sizes  of  book  type: 


25  EMS. 

23  EMS. 

21  EMS. 

The  columns  of  figures  on  the  right 
give  the  number  of  leads  required 
to  lead  1,000  ems  of  matter  of  the 
sizes  of  type  named.  Those  on 
the  left,  the  number  of  leads  in 
one  pound. 

Nonpareil,  jj 

Brevier. 

d 

V 

B 

bi) 

Small  Pica. 

ci 

0 

No. 

Leads  to 
Pound. 

■ No. 
Leads  to 
Pound. 

No. 

Leads  to 
Pound. 

) ( 21  Ems  P’a  long 

17 

25 

33 

36 

41 

31 

34 

37 

V4-to-Pica...^  23  “ “ 

15 

23 

30 

34 

37 

j (25  “ “ “ 

13 

21 

27 

32 

33 

) (21  “ “ “ 

16 

23 

30 

33 

39 

21 

23 

25 

v6-to-Pica. ..K  23  “ “ “ 

14 

21 

27 

31 

35 

j (25  “ “ - 

12 

19 

25 

2S 

31 

Sizes  of  Newspapers* 

TERM. 

Five-column  Folio  . - - - - 

Six-column  Folio  - - - - - 

Six  column  Folio,  extra  margin 
Seven-column  Folio  - - - - - 

Seven-column  Folio,  extra  margin 
Eight-column  Folio  - - - - - 

Nine-column  Folio  - - . - 

Four- column  Quarto  . . _ . 

Five-column  Quarto  - - - - 

Six-column  Quarto  . _ - - 

Seven-column  Quarto  - - - - 


SIZE. 

20  X 26  inches 
22  X 31  inches 
22  X 32  inches 
24  X 35  inches 
24  X 36  inches 
26  X 40  inches 
28  X 44  inches 
22  X 31  inches 
26  X 40  inches 
30  X 44  inches 
35  X 48  inches 


Common  Sizes  of  Flat  Papers* 


NAME.  SIZE. 

Flat  Letter  - 10  x 16 

Small  Cap  - - 13  x 16 
Flat  Cap  - - 14x17 

Demy  - - - 16  x 21 

Folio  - - 17  x 22 


NAME.  SIZE. 

Medium  - - 18  x 23 

Double  Small  Cap  - 16  x 26 
Royal  - - - 19  X 24 
Double  Cap  - 17  x 28 


MEASUREMENT  BY  SQUARE  INCHES. 

With  the  follovring  table  the  printer  dispenses  entirely  with  a 
type  measure  proper,  resorting  to  the  common  inch  rule.  After 
getting  the  square  inches  in  his  job,  he  may  take  the  figures 
directly  from  the  table,  or,  if  the  square  inches  are  in  excess  of 
the  table,  add  two  or  more  of  the  numbers  together ; as,  for 
instance,  79  square  inches  of  brevier,  the  seventh  line  gives  567 
ems  for  7 inches,  add  a cipher  and  you  have  5.670  ems  for  70 

404 


SQUARE-INCH  TTPE  MEASUREMENT. 

inches,  and  in  the  ninth  line  add  729  ems  to  the  5,670  ems,  and 
you  have  a total  of  6,399  in  79  square  inches. 


NUMBER  OF  EMS  IN  SQUARE  INCHES. 

(Adapted  to  the  Point  System.) 


Pica. 

Small 

Pica. 

1 Long 
Primer 

Bour- 

geois. 

Brevier. 

Minion. 

Nonpa- 

reil. 

i sou  are 

inch.  . 

36 

44 

52 

64 

81 

106 

144 

2 “ 

inches. 

72 

88 

104 

128 

162 

212 

283 

3 ‘‘ 

108 

132 

156 

192 

243 

318 

432 

4 “ 

144 

176 

208 

256 

324 

424 

576 

5 “ 

180 

220 

260 

320 

405 

530 

720 

6 “ 

216 

264 

312 

384 

486 

636 

864 

7 “ 

252 

308 

364 

448 

567 

7^2 

1008 

8 

“ 

288 

352 

416 

512 

648 

848 

1152 

9 “ 

“ 

324 

396 

468 

576 

729 

954 

1296 

10  “ 

“ 

360 

440 

520 

640 

810 

1060 

14-10 

11  “ 

396 

484 

572 

704 

891 

1166 

1584 

12  “ 

432 

528 

624 

768 

972 

1272 

1728 

13  “ 

468 

572 

676 

832 

1053 

1378 

1872 

14  “ 

“ 

504 

616 

728 

896 

1134 

1484 

2016 

15  “ 

“ 

540 

660 

780 

960 

1215 

1590 

2160 

)6  “ 

576 

704 

832 

1024 

1296 

1696 

2304 

17  “ 

612 

748 

884 

1088 

1377 

1802 

2442 

18  “ 

“ 

648 

792 

936 

1152 

1458 

1908 

2592 

19  “ 

“ 

684 

803 

988 

1216 

1539 

2014 

2736 

20  “ 

** 

720 

880 

1040 

1280 

1620 

2120 

2880 

21  “ 

756 

924 

1092 

1344 

1701 

2226 

3024 

22  “ 

792 

968 

1144 

1408 

1782 

2332 

3168 

23  “ 

828 

1012 

1196 

1472 

1863 

2438 

3312 

24  “ 

864 

1056 

1248 

1536 

1944 

2544 

3456 

25  “ 

900 

1100 

1300 

1600 

2025 

2650 

3600 

26  “ 

936 

1144 

1352 

1664 

2106 

2756 

3744 

27  “ 

972 

1188 

1404 

1728 

2187 

2862 

3888 

28  “ 

1008 

1232 

1456 

1792 

2268 

2988 

4032 

29  “ 

“ 

1044 

1276 

1508 

1856 

2349 

3074 

4176 

30  “ 

“ 

1080 

1320 

1560 

1920 

2430 

3180 

4320 

31  “ 

1116 

1364 

1612 

1984 

2511 

3286 

4464 

32  “ 

“ 

1152 

1408 

1664 

2048 

2592 

3392 

4608 

33  “ 

“ 

1188 

1452 

1716 

2112 

2673 

3498 

4752 

34  ** 

1224 

1496 

1768 

2176 

2754 

3604 

4896 

35  “ 

1260 

1540 

1820 

2240 

2835 

3710 

5040 

36  “ 

1296 

1584 

1872 

2304 

2916 

3816 

5184 

37  “ 

“ 

1332 

1628 

1924 

2368 

2997 

3922 

5328 

38  “ 

“ 

1368 

1672 

1976 

2432 

3078 

4028 

5472 

39  “ 

“ 

1404 

1716 

2028 

2496 

3159 

4134 

5616 

40  “ 

** 

1440 

1760 

2080 

2560 

3240 

4240 

5760 

41  “ 

“ 

1476 

1804 

-2132 

2624 

3321 

4346 

5904 

42  “ 

1512 

1848 

2184 

2688 

3402 

4452 

6048 

43  “ 

“ 

1548 

1892 

2236 

2752 

3483 

4558 

6192 

44  “ 

1584 

1936 

2288 

2816 

3564 

4664 

6336 

45  “ 

1620 

1980 

2340 

2880 

3645 

4770 

6480 

46  “ 

1656 

2024 

2392 

2944 

3726 

4876 

6624 

47  “ 

1692 

2068 

2444 

3008 

3807 

4982 

6768 

48  “ 

“ 

1728 

2112 

2496 

3072 

3888 

5088 

6912 

49  “ 

“ 

1764 

2156 

2548 

3136 

3969 

5194 

7056 

50  “ 

1800 

2200 

2600 

3200 

4050  ! 

5300 

7200 

405 


SIZES  OF  BOOK  ANB  PRINT  PAPERS. 

TO  FIND  WEIGHT  OF  A GIVEN  SIZE  TO  CORRESPOND  WITH  BULK  OF  SAMPLE. 

Rule — To  find  weight  required  for  a given  size  to  correspond  in  thickness  with  a 
given  sample,  multiply  the  weight  of  sample  by  the  dimensions  of  sheet  required, 
and  divide  by  the  product  of  the  dimensions  of  sample.  The  table  below  gives  all 
the  regular  sizes: 


Size  and  Weight 
of  Sample. 

c<i 

CO 

X 

n 

X 

00 

CO 

X 

X 

CO 

(M* 

X 

0 

X 

X 

0 

LBS. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

22x32—  25 

— 

31 

34 

37 

42 

43 

68 

30 

— 

37 

40 

44 

' 50 

51 

82 

35 

— 

43 

47 

52 

58 

60 

95 

40 

— 

49 

54 

59 

67 

68 

109 

24x36 — 30 

24 



33 

36 

41 

42 

67 

35 

29 

— 

38 

42 

48 

49 

78 

40 

33 

— 

44 

48 

54 

56 

89 

45 

37 

— 

49 

54 

61 

62 

100 

50 

41 

— 

55 

60 

68 

69 

111 

60 

49 

— 

66 

72 

82 

83 

133 

25x38 — 35 

26 

32 



38 

43 

44 

71 

40 

30 

36 

— 

44 

50 

51 

81 

50 

37 

45 

— 

55 

62 

63 

101 

60 

44 

55 

— 

66 

74 

76 

121 

70 

52 

64 

— 

77 

87 

88 

141 

80 

59 

73 

— 

88 

99 

101 

162 

28x42-  40 

24 

29 

32 

35 



41 

65 

45 

27 

33 

36 

40 

— 

46 

73 

50 

30 

37 

40 

44 

— 

51 

82 

60 

36 

44 

48 

53 

— 

61 

98 

70 

42 

51 

57 

62 

— 

71 

114 

80 

48 

59 

65 

71 

— 

82 

131 

90 

54 

66 

74 

80 

— 

92 

147 

100 

60 

74 

82 

88 

— 

102 

163 

30x40—  40 

23 

29 

32 

35 

39 

— 

64 

50 

29 

36 

40 

43 

49 

— 

80 

60 

35 

43 

48 

52 

59 

— 

96 

70 

41 

50 

55 

61 

69 

— 

112 

80 

47 

58 

63 

69 

78 

— 

128 

90 

53 

65 

71 

78 

88 

— 

144 

100 

59 

72 

79 

87 

98 

— 

160 

For  32x44  (which  is  just  double  22x32)  multiply  the  figures  of  22x3a  by  a.  Like* 
wise  38x50  is  double  25x38,  etc.  For  odd  sizes  proceed  as  per  rule  abovCi 

406 


WEATHER  FORECASTS. 


Almanac  predictions  can  be  nothing  but  conjecture,  the 
earth’s  subjection  to  many  unknowable  and  undeterminable 
forces  rendering  such  calculations  impossible.  It  is  practicable, 
however,  by  the  following  rules,  drawn  from  actual  results 
during  verj^  many  years  and  applied  with  due  regard  to  the  sub- 
jects of  solar  and  lunar  attraction  with  reference  to  this 
planet,  to  foresee  the  kind  of  weather  most  likely  to  follow  the 
moon’s  change  of  phase. 

PROGNOSTICATIONS.' 


If  New  Moon  First  Qr.,  Full 
Moon  or  Last  Qr.  happens 

In  Summer. 

In  Winter. 

Between  midnight  and  2 

A.M. 

Fair 

Frost,  unless  wind  is  S.  W. 

“ 2 

“ 4 

Cold  and  showers 

Snow  and  stormy. 

“ 4 

“ 6 

“ 

Rain 

Rain. 

“ 6 

“ 8 

Wind  and  rain.. 

Stormy. 

“ 8 

“ 10 

Changeable 

Cold  rain  if  wind  W.,  snow  if 

“ 10 

“ 12 

Frequent  showers 

Cold  and  high  wind.  [E. 

“ 12 

“ 2 

P.M. 

Very  rainy 

Snow  or  rain. 

“ 2 

“ 4 

“ 

Changeable 

Fair  and  mild. 

“ 4 

“ 6 

Fair 

Fair.  [E. 

6 

“ 8 

Fair  if  wind  N.  W . . . . 

Fair  and  frosty  if  wind  N.orN. 

“ 8 

“ 10 

“ 

Rainy  if  S.  or  S.  W. . . 

Rain  or  snow  if  S.  or  S.  W. 

“ 10 

“ midn’t. 

Fair 

Fair  and  frosty. 

Observations. — i.  The  nearer  the  moon’s  change,  first  quarter,  full  and  last 
uarter  to  midnight,  the  fairer  will  be  the  weather  during  the  next  seven  days. 

2.  The  space  for  this  calculation  occupies  from  ten  at  night  till  two  next  morning. 

3.  The  nearer  to  midday  or  noon  the  phase  of  the  moon  happens,  the  more  foul 
or  wet  weather  may  be  expected  during  the  next  seven  days. 

4.  The  space  for  this  calculation  occupies  from  ten  in  the  forenoon  to  two  in  the 
afternoon.  These  observations  refer  principally  to  summer,  though  they  affect 
spring  and  autumn  in  the  same  ratio. 

5.  The  moon’s  change,  first  quarter,  full  and  last  quarter  happening  during  six 
of  the  afternoon  hours,  i.  e.,  from  four  to  ten,  may  be  followed  by  fair  weather,  but 
this  is  mostly  dependent  on  the  wind  as  is  noted  in  the  table. 

6.  Though  the  weather,  from  a variety  of  irregular  causes,is  more  uncertain  in  the 
latter  part  of  autumn,  the  whole  of  winter  and  the  beginning  of  spring,  yet,  in  the 
main,  the  above  observations  will  apply  to  these  periods  also. 

7.  To  prognosticate  correctly,  especially  in  those  cases  where  the  wind  is  con- 
cerned, the  observer  should  be  within  sight  of  a vane  where  the  four  cardinal 
points  of  the  compass  are  correctly  placed. 

Men  must  learn  that  in  this  theater  of  man’s  life  it  is  reserved 

only  for  God  and  the  angels  to  be  lookers-on. — Lord  Bacon. 

“Old  men  for  council,  young  men  for  war,”  is  the  motto  on 
which  a Senate  is  constituted.  When  Rome  was  sacked  by  the  Gauls  the  Senate 
thought  it  unbecoming  in  their  body  to  withdraw  with  the  rest  of  the  population. 
So  they  sat  at  their  several  thresholds  and  calmly  awaited  the  end  The  barbarians 
Were  amazed  at  the  white-bearded  figures  and  regarded  them  at  first  with  some  awe. 
Gradually  they  dared  to  stroke  their  beards  and  pass  their  hands  over  their  bodies. 
At  length  finding  that  they  were  but  mortal  men  they  destroyed  them.  The  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States  recognizes  the  importance  of  age  in  limiting  eligibility 
to  the  Senate  to  those  who  have  reached  the  age  of  thirty  years. 

407 


WEATHER  FORECASTS. 


Certain  phenomena  in  the  air  and  peculiarities  of  birds  have 
long  been  known  to  indicate  a change  in  the  weather.  Many 
years  ago  the  learned  Dr.  Jenner  embodied  these  in  verse,  in  re- 
ply to  an  invitation  from  a friend  with  whom  he  had  planned  an 
excursion  the  following  day.  It  embodies  about  all  that  is 
known  to-day  upon  that  branch  of  the  subject,  and  we  repro- 
duce it  as  being  reasonably  correct: 

The  hollow  winds  begin  to  blow, 

The  clouds  look  black,  the  glass  is  low; 

The  soot  falls  down,  the  spaniels  sleep. 

And  spiders  from  their  cobwebs  peep. 

Last  night  the  sun  went  pale  to  bed. 

The  moon  in  halos  hid  her  head; 

The  boding  shepherd  heaves  a sigh. 

For,  see,  a rainbow  spans  the  sky; 

The  walls  are  damp,  the  ditches  smell, 

Closed  is  the  pink-eyed  pimpernel. 

Hark!  how  the  chairs  and  tables  crack. 

Old  Betty’sjoints  are  on  the  rack; 

Loud  quack  the  ducks,  the  peacocks  cry. 

The  distant  hills  are  looking  nigh. 

How  restless  are  the  snorting  swine. 

The  busy  flies  disturb  the  kine; 

Low  o’er  the  grass  the  swallow  wings; 

The  cricket,  too,  how  sharp  he  sings; 

Puss,  on  the  hearth,  with  velvet  paws, 

Sits,  wiping  o’er  her  whiskered  jaws. 

Through  the  clear  stream  the  fishes  rise, 

And  nimbly  catch  th’  incautious  flies; 

The  glow-worms,  numerous  and  bright. 

Illum’d  the  dewy  dell  last  night. 

At  dusk  the  squalid  toad  was  seen. 

Hopping  and  crawling  o’er  the  green; 

The  whirling  wind  the  dust  obeys. 

And  in  the  rapid  eddy  plays; 

The  frog  has  changed  his  yellow  vest. 

And  in  a russet  coat  is  dressed. 

Though  June,  the  air  is  cold  and  still; 

The  blackbird’s  mellow  voice  is  shrill. 

My  dog,  so  alter’d  is  his  taste, 

Quits  mutton  bones,  on  grass  to  feast; 

And  see  yon  rooks,  how  odd  their  flight, 

They  imitate  the  gliding  kite. 

And  seem  precipitate  to  fall — 

As  if  they  felt  the  piercing  ball. 

’Twill  surely  rain.  I see  with  sorrow. 

Our  jaunt  must  be  put  off  tomorrow. 

The  most  dreadful  earthquake  on  record  is  that  which, 

November  r,  1775,  destroyed  the  city  of  Lisbon,  Portugal.  The  only  warning  the 
inhabitants  received  was  a noise  like  subterranean  thunder,  which,  without  any 
considerable  interval,  was  followed  by  a succession  of  shocks  which  laid  in  rums 
almost  every  building  in  the  city,  v/ith  a most  incredible  slaughter  of  the  inhabitants 
(60,000).  The  bed  of  th©  river  Tagus  was  in  many  places  raised  to  the  surface,  and 
vessels  on  the  river  suddenly  found  themselves  aground.  The  waters  of  the  river 
and  the  sea  at  first  retreated,  and  then  immediately  rolled  violently  in  upon  the 
land,  forming  a wave  over  forty  feet  in  elevation.  To  complete  the  destruction  a 
large  quay,  upon  which  great  numbers  of  the  people  had  assembled  for  security, 
suddenly  sank  to  such  an  unfathomable  depth  that  not  one  body  ever  afterwards 
appeared  at  the  surface.  [408] 


SHOEMAKERS’  MEASURE. 

Small  Sizes — No.  1.  4 l-8th  in. 

No.  2.  4 l-8th  in.  -j-  l-3d  = 4 ll-24th  in. 

No.  3.  4 l-8th  in.  -j-  l-3d  -i-  l-3d  = 4 19-24th  in. 
Etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

Large  Sizes — No.  1.  8 11-24  in. 

No.  2.  8 11-24  in.  -j-  l-3d  ==  8 19-24  in. 

No.  3.  8 11-24  in.  4-  l-3d  + l-3d  = 9 l-8th  in. 

No.  4.  8 11-21  in.  -j-  l-3d  + l-3d  + l-3d  = 9 11- 

24th  in.  Etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

WOMAN’S  CHANCES  OF  MARRIAGE. 

This  curiously  constructed  exhibit  by  Mr.  Finlayson,  a 
European  statistician,  is  drawn  up  from  the  registered  cases  of 
1,000  married  womon,  taken  without  selection.  Of  the  i,ooo 
tabulated  there  were  married : 


Marriages. 

Years  of  Age. 

Marriages. 

Years  of  Age. 

32  

14  to  15 

41  

28  to  29 

101  

16  “ 17 

18  

30  “ 31 

219  

18  ‘ 

‘ 19 

15  

32  “ 33 

230  

20  ‘ 

‘ 21 

8 

34  “ 35 

165  

22  ‘ 

‘ 24 

4 

36  87 

102  

24  ‘ 

‘ 25 

2 

.38  “ .39 

60  

‘ 27 

The  Days  of  the  Week. — The  names  of  these  are  de- 
rived from  Saxon  idolatry.  The  Saxons  had  seven  deities  more 
particularly  adored  than  the  rest,  namely:  The  Sun,  Moon, 
Tuisco,  Woden,  Thor,  Friga  and  Seater.  Sunday,  being  dedi- 
cated to  the  sun,  was  called  by  them  Sunandaeg;  his  idol  repre- 
sented the  bust  of  a man,  with  the  face  darting  bright  rays,  hold- 
ing a wheel  before  his  breast,  indicative  of  the  circuit  of  the 
golden  orb  around  our  sphere.  Monday  was  dedicated  to  the 
moon,  and  was  represented  by  a female  on  a pedestal,  with  a very 
singular  dress  and  two  long  ears.  Tuesday  was  dedicated  to  Tuis- 
co, a German  hero,  sire  of  the  Germans,  Scythians  and  Saxons. 
He  was  represented  as  a venerable  old  man,  with  a long  white 
beard,  a scepter  in  his  hand  and  the  skin  of  a white  bear  thrown 
over  his  shoulders.  Wednesday  was  consecrated  to  Woden,  or 
Odin,  a supreme  god  of  the  northern  nations,  father  of  the  gods, 
god  of  war,  of  Mars.  He  was  represented  as  a warrior  in  a 
bold  martial  attitude,  clad  in  armor,  holding  in  his  right 
hand  a broad,  crooked  sword  and  a shield  in  his 
left.  Thursday  was  consecrated  to  Thor,  eldest  son  of 
Woden,  who  was  the  Roman  Jupiter.  He  was  believed  to 
govern  the  air,  preside  over  lightning  and  thunder,  direct  the 
wind,  rain  and  seasons.  He  was  represented  as  sitting  on  a 
splendid  throne,  with  a crown  of  gold  adt>rned  with  twelve  glit- 
tering stars,  and  a scepter  in  his  right  hand.  Friday,  or  Friga, 
Hertha  or  Edith,  was  the  mother  of  the  gods  and  wife  of 

409 


THE  MATFLOWEirS  PASSENGERS. 


Woden.  She  was  the  goddess  of  love  and  pleasure  and  was 
portrayed  as  a female  with  a naked  sword  in  her  right  hand  and 
bow  in  her  left  hand,  implying  that  in  extreme  cases  women 
should  fight  as  well  as  men.  Saturday,  or  Seater,  is  the  same  as 
the  Roman  Saturnus.  He  was  represented  on  a pedestal,  stand- 
ing on  the  back  of  a prickly  fish  called  a perch,  his  head  bare, 
with  a thin,  meager  face.  In  his  left  hand  he  held  a wheel  and 
in  his  right  a pail  of  water  with  fruits  and  flowers.  The  sharp 
fins  of  the  fish  implied  that  the  worshipers  of  Seater  should 
pass  safely  through  every  difficulty.  The  wheel  was  emble- 
matic of  their  unit}"  and  freedom,  and  the  pail  of  water  implied 
that  he  could  water  the  earth  and  make  it  more  beautiful. 


The  Mayflower’s  Passengers. 

The  following  is  a true  list  of  the  male  passengers  landed  at 
Plymouth  in  the  Mayflower  : 


Isaac  Allerton. 

Jno.  Alden. 

Jno.  Allerton. 

William  Bradford. 

William  Brewster. 

John  Billington. 

Peter  Brown. 

Richard  Britterage. 

John  Carver. 

Francis  Cook. 

James  Chilton. 

John  Crackston. 

Richard  Clarke. 

Edward  Dotey. 

Servants  as  follows  : 
Carter.  Hooke. 

Cooper.  Langmore. 

Ely.  Latham. 

Holbeck.  Minter. 


Francis  Eaton. 
Thomas  English. 
Samuel  Fuller. 
John  Howland. 
Stephen  Hopkins. 
Edward  Leister. 


John  Goodman. 
Richard  Gardiner. 
George  Soule. 

Capt.  Miles  Standish. 
Edward  Tilly. 

John  Tilly. 


Christopher  Martin.  Thomas  Tinker. 


William  Mullins. 
Edmund  Margeson. 
Degony  Priest. 
Thomas  Rogers. 
John  Rigdale. 
Edward  Fuller. 
Moses  Fletcher. 


John  Turner. 
Edward  Winslow. 
William  White. 
Richard  Warren. 
Thomas  Williams. 
Gilbert  Winslow. 


More. 

Power. 

Sampson. 

Story. 


Thompson. 

Trevore. 

Wilder. 


The  great  Egyptian  obelisk  in  Central  Park,  New  York,  is 

one  of  the  most  noted  monoliths  in  the  world.  It  was  quarried,  carved  and  erected 
about  the  time  of  Abraham  to  commemorate  the  deeds  of  an  ancient  Pharaoh.  Five 
hundred  years  later  the  conquering  Sesostris,  the  bad  Pharaoh  of  Scripture,  carved 
on  its  surface  the  record  of  his  famous  reign.  The  royal  cartouch  (or  oval)  shows 
that  the  work  was  done  under  the  immediace  order  and  sanction  of  the  king.  But 
Sesostris  (or  Rameses  II.)  reigned  one  hundred  years  before  the  Trojan  war;  so  all 
the  symbols  now  seen  on  Cleopatra’s  Needle  were  already  venerable  with  age  in  the 
days  of  Priam,  Hector,  Helen,  Agamemnon.  Achilles  and  Ulysses.  The  Roman 
poet  Horace  says  there  were  brave  men  before  Agamemnon,  but  they  lacked  a 
Homer  to  save  their  names  from  oblivion.  Sesostris,  however,  was  an  exception. 
He  escaped  oblivion  without  the  aid  of  a Homer.  Homer’s  heroes  are  to  be  con- 
gratulated above  all  men  on  having  their  story  sung  by  such  a minstrel;  but  with 
this  thought  there  always  goes  a little  doubt  as  to  whether  there  ever  were  such  heroes 
and  such  deeds  outside  of  Homer’s  imagination.  The  hard  granite  of  the  Egyptian 
mountains  leaves  no  doubt  that  Sesostris  lived  a»d  reigned,  [410] 


WIND  AND  WEATHER  SIGNALS. 


On  March  i,  1887,  a new  system  of  weather  signals  was  intro- 
duced by  the  United  States  Signal  Office  of  the  War  Department,  and  has  since 
been  in  use  at  all  the  stations  of  the  service.  The  flags  adopted  for  this  purpose  are 
four  in  number,  and  of  the  form  and  dimensions  indicated  below: 


No.  I. 

White  Flag. 


Clear  or  fair 
‘weather. 


No.  2. 
Blue  Flag. 


Rain 
or  snow. 


No.  3. 

Black  Triangular 
Flag. 

Temperatzire 

signal. 


No  4. 

White  Flag  with 
black  square  in 
center. 


Cold  wave. 


Example. 


S 


Number  i,  white  flag,  six  feet  square,  indicates  clear  or  fair  weather.  Number  2, 
blue  flag,  six  feet  square,  indicates  rain  or  snow.  Number  3,  black  triangular  flag, 
four  feet  at  the  base  and  six  feet  in  length,  always  refers  to  temperature;  when 
placed  above  numbers  i or  2 it  indicates  warmer  weather;  when  placed  below 
numbers  i or  2 it  indicates  colder  weather;  when  not  displayed,  the  indications  are 
that  the  temperature  will  remain  stationary, 
or  that  the  change  in  temperature  will  not 
vary  five  degrees  from  the  temperature  of  the 
same  hour  of  the  preceding  day.  Number  4, 
white  flag,  six  feet  square,  with  black  square 
in  center,  indicates  the  approach  of  a sudden 
and  decided  fall  in  temperature.  This  signal 
is  usually  ordered  at  least  twenty-four  hours 
in  advance  of  the  cold  wave.  It  is  not  dis- 
played unless  a temperature  of  forty-five  de- 
grees, or  lower,  is  expected.  When  number  4 
is  displayed,  number  3 is  always  omitted. 

When  displayed  on  poles,  the  signals  are 
arranged  to  read  downward;  when  displayed 
from  horizontal  supports,  a small  streamer  is 
attached  to  indicate  the  point  from  which  the 
signals  are  to  be  read. 

Interpretation  of  Displays. 

No.  I,  alone,  indicates  fair  weather,  station- 


□ 


Cold  wave,  fol- 
lowed by  rain 
or  snow,  suc- 
ceeded by  fair 
weather; 
colder. 


ary  temperature. 

No.  2,  alone,  indicates  rain  or  snow,  station- 


Example. 

► 

□ 

BLUE 


Warmer, 
fair 
weather, 
followed 
by  rain  or 


ary  temperature. 

No.  I,  with  No.  3 below  it,  indicates  fair 

weather,  colder. 

No.  2,  with  No.  3 above  it,  indicates  warmer 
weather,  rain  or  snow. 

No.  I,  with  No.  4 below  it,  indicates  fair  weather,  cold  wave. 

No.  3,  with  Nos.  I and  2 below  it,  indicates  warmer,  fair  weather,  followed  by  rain 
or  snow. 


Storm,  Cautionary  and  Wind-Direction  Signals. 

A red  flag  with  a black  center  indicates  that  the  storm  is  expected  to  be  ot 
marked  violence.  A yellow  flag  with  a white  center  indicates  that  the  winds  ex- 
pected will  not  be  so  severe,  but  well-found;  seaworthy  vessels  can  meet  them 
Vithout  danger.  The  red  pennant  indicates  easterly  winds;  that  is,  from  the  north- 
ast  to  south  inclugive,  and  that  generally  the  storm  center  is  approaching.  If 

41X 


WIND  AND  WEATHER  SIGNALS, 


above  cautionary  or  storm-signal,  winds  from  northeast  quadrant  are  more  probable; 
below,  winds  from  southeast  quadrant.  The  white  pennant  indicates  westerly 
winds;  that  is,  from  north  to  southwest  inclusive,  and  that  generally  the  storm 
center  has  passed.  If  above  cautionary  or  storm-signal,  winds  from  northeast 
quadrant  are  more  probable;  if  below ^ winds  from  southwest  quadrant. 


White  Pennant, 


Westerly  Winds. 


Time  Difference  Between  the  City  of  New  York  and  the  Principal 
Foreign  Cities. 


H.  M. 

Antwerp 5 13 

Berlin 5 50 

Bremen 5 31 

Brussels 5 14 

Buenos  Ayres.  1 02 

Calcutta 10  50 

Constantinople  6 53 


FASTER  THAN  N.  Y. 

H.  M. 

Dublin 4 31 

Edinburgh  . . 4 43 

Geneva 5 21 

Hamburg ...  6 36 
Liverpool ...  4 44 
London  ....  4 56 
Madrid 4 42 


H.  M. 

Melbourne. ...  9 14 

Paris 5 02 

Rio  de  Janeiro  2 03 

Rome 5 46 

St.  Petersburg.  6 57 

V alparaiso 10 

Vienna 6 01 


SLOWER  THAN  N.  Y. 

H.  M. 

Canton .H  31 

Havana 33 

Hong  Kong..  .11  27 
Mexico,  City  of  ] 40 

Panama 12 

Vera  Cruz 1 29 

Yokohama. .. .10  45 


Actual  New  York  mean  time  is  given. 


The  Climates  of  the  United  States. 

Mean  annual  temperature,  Fahrenheit,  at  places  named. 


Alabama 

Mobile 

Alaska 

Sitka 

Arizona  ..... 

Tucson 

Arkansas 

Little  Rock 

California 

San  Francisco. . 

Colorado 

Denver..  

Connecticut 

Hartford 

Dakota 

Fort  Randall .... 

Delaware. 

Willmington 

Dist.  Columbia  . . 

Washington 

Florida 

Jacksonville 

Georgia 

Atlanta 

Idaho 

Fort  Boise 

Illinois . 

.Springfield 

Indiana 

Indianapolis 

Indian  Territory. 

Fort  Gibson 

Iowa 

Des  Moines 

Kansas 

Leavenworth 

Kentucky ....... 

I.oiii.sville  ....... 

Louisiana 

New  Orleans  .... 

Maine . 

Aiip^iista 

Maryland  ....... 

Baltimore 

Massachusetts  . . . 

Boston 

Michigan 

Detroit 

Minnesota 

St.  Paul 

66° 

Mississippi 

46 

Missouri 

69 

Montana 

63 

Nebraska 

55 

Nevada 

48 

New  Hampshire. 

50 

New  Jersey 

47 

New  Mexico. ... 

53 

New  York 

55 

North  Carolina. . 

69 

Ohio 

58 

Oregon 

52 

Pennsylvania. . . . 

50 

Rhode  Island 

51 

South  Carolina. . . 

60 

Tennessee 

49 

Texas 

51 

Utah 

56 

Vermont 

69 

Virginia 

45 

Washington  T. . . 

54 

West  Virginia. . . 

48 

Wisconsin 

47 

Wyoming. 

42 

Jackson 

64° 

St.  Louis 

55 

Helena 

43 

Omaha 

49 

C’p  Winfi’ld  Scott 

50 

Concord 

46 

Trenton 

53 

Santa  Fe 

51 

Albany 

48 

Raleigh 

59 

Columbus 

53 

Portland 

53 

Harrisburg 

54 

Providence 

48 

62 

Nashville. . .c. . . 

58 

Austin 

67 

Salt  Lake  City. . . 

52 

Montpelier 

43 

Richmond 

57 

Steilacoom 

51 

Romney 

52 

Madison 

45 

Fort  Bridger 

41 

412 


THE  LANGUAGE  OF  FLOWERS. 


A cluster  of  flowers  can  be  made  to  express  any  sentiment,  if 
care  is  taken  in  the  selection. 

If  a flower  is  offered  reversed,  its  original  signification  is  con- 
tradicted, and  the  opposite  implied. 

A rosebud  divested  of  its  thorns,  but  retaining  its  leaves,  con- 
veys the  sentiment,  “I  fear  no  longer;  I hope.”  Stripped  of 
leaves  and  thorns,  it  signifies,  “There  is  nothing  to  hope  or  fear.” 

A full-blown  rose,  placed  over  two  buds,  signifies  “Secrecy.” 

“Yes”  is  implied  by  touching  the  flower  given  to  the  lips; 
“No,”  by  pinching  off  a petal  and  casting  it  away. 

“I  am”  is  expressed  by  a laurel  leaf  twined  around  the  bou- 
quet; “I  have,”  by  an  ivy  leaf  folded  together;  “I  offer  you,”  by 
a leaf  of  Virginia  creeper. 


COMBINATIONS 


Moss  Rosebud, 

Myrtle, 

Mignonette, 

Colored  Daisy, 

Lily  of  the  Valley, 
Ferns, 

Yellow  Rose, 

Broken  Straw, 

Ivy, 

Scarlet  Geranium, 
Passion  Flower, 

Purple  Hyacinth, 

Arbor  Vitae, 

Columbine, 

Day  Lily, 

Broken  Straw, 

Witch  Hazel, 

Colored  Daisy, 

White  Pink, 

Canary  Grass, 

Laurel, 

Golden-rod, 

Monkshead, 

Sweet  Pea, 
Forget-me-not, 

Arbor  Vitae. — Unchanging  friendship. 

Camellia,  White. — Loveliness. 

Candy-Tuft. — Indifference. 

Carnation,  White.— Disdain. 

China  Aster. — Variety. 

Clover,  Four-Leaf. — Be  mine. 

Clover,  White. — Think  of  me. 

Clover,  Red. — Industry. 

Columbine. — Folly. 

Daisy. — Innocence. 

Daisy,  Colored. — Beauty. 

Dead  Leaves. — Sadness. 

Deadly  Nightshade. — Falsehood. 

Fern. — Fascination. 

Forget-me-not. 

Fuchsia,  Scarlet. — Taste. 

Geranium,  Horseshoe. — Stupidity. 

Geranium,  Scarlet. — Consolation. 

413 


A confession 
of  love. 

Your  qualities  surpass  your  charms 
of  beauty. 

( Your  unconscious  sweetness 
( has  fascinated  me. 
f Your  jealousy 
-<  has  broken 
( our  friendship. 

I trust  you  will  find  consolation, 
j through  faith, 
j in  your  sorrow; 

[ be  assured  of  my  unchanging  friendship, 
f Your  folly  and 
coquetry  have 
- broken 
the  spell  of  your 
^ beauty. 

Your  talent 
and  perseverance 
will  win  you  glory. 

I Be  cautious; 
danger  is  near; 

I depart  soon; 

^ forget  me  not. 

Geranium,  Rose. — Preference. 
Golden-rod. — Be  cautious. 

Heliotrope.  — Devotion . 

Hyacinth,  White. — Loveliness. 
Hyacinth,  Purple. — Sorrow. 

Ivy.  — F riendship. 

Lily,  Day. — Coquetry. 

Lily,  White. — Sweetness. 

Lily,  Yellow. — Gayety. 

Lily,  Water. — Purity  of  heart;  elegance. 
Lily  of  the  Valley.— Unconscious  sweet- 
ness. 

Mignonette. — Your  qualities  surpass 
your  charms. . 

Monkshead. — Danger  is  near. 

Myrtle. — Love. 

Oak. — Hospitality. 

Orange  Blossoms. — Chastity. 


THE  LANGUAGE  OF  GEMS. 


Pansy.  — Thoughts. 

Passion  Flower. — Faith. 

Primrose. — Inconstancy. 

Rose. — Love. 

Rose,  Damask. — Beauty  ever  new. 

Rose,  Yellow.— Jealousy. 

Rose,  White. — I am  worthy  of  you. 

Rosebud,  Moss. — Confession  of  love. 

Smilax. — Constancy. 

THE  LANGUAGE  OF  GEMS. 

Amethyst. — Peace  of  mind.  Regarded  by  the  ancients  a 

having  the  power  to  dispel  drunkenness. 

Bloodstone. — I mourn  your  absence.  Worn  by  the  ancienh 

as  an  amulet  or  charm,  on  account  of  the  medicinal  and  magical  virtues  it  was  sup 
posed  to  possess. 

Diamond. — Pride.  Awarded  supernatural  qualities  from  the 

most  remote  period  down  to  the  Middle  Ages.  Has  the  power  of  making  mer, 
courageous  and  magnanimous.  Protects  from  evil  spirits.  Influences  the  gods  to 
take  pity  upon  mortals.  Maintains  concord  between  husband  and  wife,  and  for  this 
reason  was  held  as  the  most  appropriate  stone  for  the  espousal  ring. 

Emerald. — Success  in  love.  Mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  worn 

in  the  breast-plate  of  the  High  Priest  as  an  emblem  of  chastity. 

Ruby. — A cheerful  mind.  An  amulet  against  poison,  sadness, 
evil  thoughts.  A preservative  of  health.  Admonishes  the  wearer  of  impending 
danger  by  changing  color. 

Sapphire. — Chastity.  Procures  favor  with  princes.  Frees 

from  enchantment.  Prevents  impure  thoughts. 

Topaz.— -Fidelity.  Calms  the  passions.  [tagion. 

Turquoise. — Success  and  happiness.  Preserves  from  con- 
Garnet. — Fidelity  in  every  engagement.  Onyx. — Reciprocal 
love.  Opal. — Pure  thoughts.  Pearl. -^Purity  and  innocence. 


Straw.  — Agreement. 

Straw,  Broken. — Broken  agreement. 
Sweet  Pea. — Depart. 

Tuberose. — Dangerous  pleasures. 
Thistle. — Sternness. 

Verbena. — Pray  for  me. 

White  Jasmine.— Amiability. 

Witch  Hazel. — A spell. 


Making  Blackboards. — The  following  directions  for  this 

work  are  given  us  by  an  experienced  superintendent  : The  first  care  must  be  to 
make  the  wall  surface  or  boards  to  be  blacked  perfectly  smooth.  Fill  all  the  holes 
and  cracks  with  plaster  of  Paris  mixed  with  water;  mix  but  little  at  a time;  press  in 
and  smooth  down  with  a case  knife.  The  cracks  between  shrunken  boards  may  be 
filled  in  the  same  way  Afterward  use  sandpaper.  The  ingredients  needed  for  slat- 
ing are  (i)  liquid  gum  shellac,  sometimes  called  shellac  varnish;  (2)  lampblack  or 
drop  black.  Gum  shellac  is  cut  in  alcohol,  and  the  liquid  can  be  obtained  of  any 
druggist.  Pour  some  shellac  into  an  open  dish,  and  stir  in  lampblack  to  make  a 
heavy  paint  With  a clean  brush,  spread  on  any  kind  of  surface  but  glass.  Put  on 
a little  and  test  it.  If  it  is  glossy  and  the  chalk  slips  over  it,  reduce  the  mixture 
with  alcohol  Alcohol  can  be  bought  of  any  druggist.  If  it  rubs  off,  let  the  drug- 
gist put  in  more  gum  to  make  the  liquid  thicker.  One  quart  of  the  liquid  and  a 5 
cent  paper  of  lampblack  are  sufficient  to  slate  all  the  blackboards  in  any  country 
school  with  two  coats. 

How  TO  Polish  Horns. — First  boil  the  horn  to  remove  the 

pith,  if  it  has  been  freshly  taken  from  the  animal.  If  it  is  an  old,  dry  horn,  the 
pith  may  be  dried  out,  and  boiling  is  not  necessary:  but  it  may  be  laid  in  hot 
water  for  a short  time  to  make  it  soft.  Then  scrape  off  all  the  roughnesses  with  a 
coarse  file,  a knife  or  a piece  of  glass.  When  the  rough  spots  are  removed  rub 
around  the  horn  with  coarse  sandpaper,  then  with  a finer  kind.  After  this,  rub  the 
horn  lengthwise  with  a flannel  cloth  which  has  been  dipped  in  powdered  punaice- 
stone  or  rotten  stone,  and  moistened  in  linseed  oil.  This  rubbing  should  continue 
till  all  the  sandpaper  marks  are  removed,  then  give  a final  rubbing  with  a clean 
flannel  cloth,  and  lastly,  with  a piece  of  tissue  paper. 

414 


THE  WONDERS  OF  ELECTRICITY. 


THE  TELEPHONE. — The  principle  of  the  telephone,  that  sounds 

could  be  conveyed  to  a distance  by  a distended  wire,  was  demonstrated  by  Robert 
Hook  in  1667,  but  no  practical  application  was  made  of  the  discovery  until  1821, 
when  Professor  Wheatstone  exhibited  his  “Enchanted  Lyre,”  in  which  the  sounds 
of  a music  box  were  conveyed  from  a cellar  to  upper  rooms.  The  first  true  discov- 
erer of  the  speaking  telephone,  however,  was  Johann  Philipp  Reis,  a German  sci- 
entist and  professor  in  the  institute  of  Friedrichsdorf,  April  25,  1861,  Reis  exhib- 
ited his  telephone  at  Frankfort.  This  contained  all  the  essential  features  of  the 
modern  telephone,  but  as  its  commercial  value  was  not  at  all  comprehended,  little 
attention  was  paid  to  it.  Reis,  after  trying  in  vain  to  arouse  the  interest  of  scientists 
in  his  discovery,  died  in  1874,  without  having  reaped  any  advantage  from  it,  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  his  death  was  hastened  by  the  distress  of  mind  caused  by  his 
continual  rebuffs.  Meanwhile,  the  idea  was  being  worked  into  more  practical 
shape  by  other  persons.  Professor  Elisha  Gray  and  Professor  A.G.  Bell,  and  later  by 
Mr.  Edison.  There  is  little  doubt  that  Professor  Gray’s  successful  experiments  con- 
siderably antedated  those  of  the  others  but  Professor  Bell  was  the  first  to  perfect 
his  patent.  February  12,  1877,  Bell’s  articulating  telephone  was  tested  by  experi- 
ments at  Boston  and  Salem,  Mass  , and  was  found  to  convey  sounds  distinctly  from 
one  place  to  the  other,  a distance  of  eighteen  miles.  This  telephone  was  exhibited 
widely  in  this  country  and  in  Europe  during  that  year,  and  telephone  companies 
were  established  to  bring  it  into  general  use.  Edison’s  carbon  “loud-speaking”  tel- 
ephone was  brought  out  in  1878.  It  is  not  worth  while  to  go  into  details  on  the  sub- 
ject of  priority  of  invention.  The  Examiner  of  Patents  at  Washington,  July  21,  1883, 
decided  that  Professor  Bell  was  the  first  inventor,  because  he  was  the  first  to  com- 
plete his  invention  and  secure  a full  patent.  Since  1878  there  have  been  many  im- 
provements in  the  different  parts  of  the  telephone,  rendering  it  now  nearly  perfect 
in  its  working. 

THE  PHONOGRAPH. — The  principle  of  the  phonograph  is  very 

simple.  All  sound  is  produced  by  vibrations  of  the  air.  Therefore,  any  sound 
whatever  can  be  reproduced  by  reproducing  its  vibrations.  The  phonograph  is  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  yet  its  foundation  prin- 
ciple is  as  readily  understood  as  the  multiplication  table,  and  its  construction  is  sim- 
plicity itself.  A small  brass  cylinder  is  made  to  turn  on  a metal  shaft,  and  upon  its 
surface  is  cut  a spiral  groove,  corresponding  to  threads  cut  on  the  shaft.  Over  the 
cylinder  is  spread  a sheet  of  tin  foil,  secured  on  its  edges  by  some  highly  adhering 
substance.  A crank  attached  to  the  shaft  turns  the  cylinder,  giving  it  at  the  same 
time  a rotary  and  a horizontal  motion.  In  front  of  the  cylinder  is  a mouthpiece,  hav- 
ing on  its  bottom  (next  the  cylinder)  a very  thin  plate  or  diaphragm  of  metal,  to  which 
is  attached  a round  steel  point.  Before  using  the  apparatus  the  steel  point  must  be 
accurately  adjusted  opposite  to  that  part  of  the  foil  lying  over  the  spiral  groove.  If 
the  lips  are  now  applied  to  the  mouthpiece  and  any  sentence  spoken,  the  crank  at 
the  same  time  being  turned,  the  vibrations  imparted  to  the  metal  plate  by  the  voice 
will  cause  the  steel  point  to  come  into  contact  with  that  part  of  the  foil  overlying  the 
groove  and  to  make  on  it  a series  of  indentations  as  it  revolves  and  is  carried  forward 
laterally  before  the  mouthpiece.  These  indentations  vary  in  depth  and  sectional 
outline  according  to  the  force  and  kind  of  vibrations  made,  and  are  in  fact  a tran- 
scription of  the  sounds.  They  are  then  translated  by  bringing  the  cylinder  back  to 
its  starting-point  and  substituting  for  the  mouthpiece  a resonator.  The  steel  is  then 
held  by  a screw  close  to  the  foil,  and  as  the  cylinder  moves  the  point  retraces  the  in- 
dentations from  beginning  to  end  and  communicates  to  the  metal  diaphragm  the 
same  vibrations  which  it  had  received  from  it,  and  these  vibrations,  communicated 
to  the  resonating  apparatus,  are  reproduced  as  spoken  words.  If  the  crank  is 
turned  with  exact  regularity  the  exact  pitch  and  tone  of  the  speaker’s  voice  will 
also  be  given  back.  The  phonograph  was  invented  by  Mr.  Edison  in  1877  and 
brought  before  the  public  early  in  the  following  year.  The  inventor  believed  that 
the  numerous  practical  applications  of  this  machine  would  commend  it  very  largely 
to  general  use.  This  has  not  thus  far  proved  to  be  the  case,  not  because  the  instru- 
ment itself  is  lacking,  for  added  experiment  only  proves  its  more  remarkable  possi- 
bilities, but  probably  because  the  invention  is  so  wholly  new  and  strange,  so  at  vari- 
ance with  anything  previously  known  and  understood,  that  men  have  not  yet  been 
able  to  comprehend  its  application  to  everyday  affairs.  [415] 


THE  WONDERS  OF  ELECTRICITT. 


THE  GRAPHOPHONE. — This  invention  is  the  work  of  Mr.  Sum- 
ner Taintor,  aided  by  Professor  Bell,  the  telephone  inventor.  The  machine  is  oper- 
ated on  the  principle  of  the  phonograph.  It  is  very  simple  and  is  free  from  mechan- 
ical complication.  It  has  a treadle,  and  it  looks  very  much  like  a small  sewing- 
machine.  Edison  discovered  the  art  of  recording  and  reproducing  sound,  but  his  in- 
vention could  not  be  used  because  of  its  clumsy  mechanical  arrangement,  coupled 
with  the  very  inferior  and  unsatisfactory  methods  of  recording  the  sounds  produced. 
He  used  a piece  of  tinfoil  upon  which  the  sound  waves  were 
indented  and  from  which  they  were  easily  obliterated.  The  present 
inventor,  Mr.  Taintor,  saw  that  a less  destructible  material  was  required,  and 
after  considerable  experiment  tried  a preparation  of  wax  and  paraffine.  This  is  the 
surface  now  used,  and  it  works  perfectly.  He  then  made  an  entirely  new  apparatus, 
and  the  result  is  the  graphophone,  a machine  which  will  sing  a song,  report  a 
whistle,  or  give  the  quality  and  inflections  of  the  voice  in  a most  charming  way. 
The  small  point  which  is  attached  to  the  diaphragm  of  the  machine  cuts  a minute 
hair  line  in  the  wax  surface.  This  line  is  so  faint  that  it  is  scarcely  perceptible  to 
the  naked  eye,  yet  it  serves  to  give  a reproduction,  so  as  to  be  distinctly  heard  by 
the  listener,  of  a song,  a laugh,  or  an  ordinary  speech. 

THE  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY.— Electricity  may  be  applied  to  the 

propulsion  of  cars  in  two  different  ways.  In  one  case  the  current  is  supplied  to  the 
electro-motors  from  storage  batteries  carried  by  the  cars.  This  method  requires  no 
change  in  the  ordinary  roadbed  used  by  the  steam  railway,  but  no  means  have  yet 
been  invented  for  making  or  operating  economically  the  storage  battery  required. 
In  the  second  case  the  current  is  supplied  to  the  motors  on  moving  trains  from  sta- 
tions along  the  line  of  road  through  properly  placed  conductors.  The  method  re- 
quires a peculiar  construction  of  the  road  throughout  with  reference  to  the  necessary 
electrical  conditions.  Several  different  forms  of  the  electric  railway  are  possible, 
depending  on  the  method  by  which  the  current  is  conducted  to  the  motors.  By  one 
method  the  two  rails  are  used  as  conductors,  the  current  going  out  by  one  rail  and 
returning  by  the  other,  and  passing  to  the  electro-motors  through  the  wheels  of  the 
train,  which  are  insulated.  There  is  much  leakage  or  loss  of  power  in  this  method, 
however,  and  its  inventors  have  essayed  to  overcome  by  using  a third  rail  or  conduc- 
tor for  the  outgoing  current,  utilizing  both  rails  for  its  return.  We  will  briefly  de- 
scribe the  method  of  working  the  Siemens  electric  railway,  which  has  been  applied 
successfully  to  several  short  railway  lines  in  Europe.  The  longest  of  these  lines  is 
that  between  Portrush  and  Bushmills,  in  the  north  of  Ireland,  which  is  six  miles 
long.  The  line  is  a three-foot  gauge,  single  track,  laid  at  one  side  of  the  country 
road.  The  third  rail,  or  conductor,  is  placed  beside  the  roadbed,  17  inches  above 
the  ground.  It  is  a T-rail  carried  upon  insulator  posts.  The  current  is  conveyed 
by  tbe  conductor  to  the  car  by  means  of  two  steel  springs,  one  at  each  end. 
Wherever  the  railway  crosses  roads  the  conductor  is  carried  underground.  The 
current  from  the  conducting  rail  passes  through  the  car  to  the  return  rails  by  a 
switch  worked  by  a lever — with  which  resistance  coils  can  be  placed  in  or  out  of 
circuit — then  through  the  electro-motor  to  the  wheels  by  whieh  it  reaches  the  rails. 
The  motor  is  placed  in  the  center  of  the  car,  beneath  the  floor,  being  connected  with 
the  axle  of  one  pair  of  wheels  by  gearing.  The  reversing  and  brake  levers  are 
placed  at  each  end  of  the  car,  so  that  it  can  be  operated  from  either  end.  The  rails 
of  the  track  are  laid  in  the  usual  manner,  and  are  connected  with  the  strips  of  cop- 
per to  insure  good  electrical  contact.  In  the  Edison  and  Field  railway,  which  was 
exhibited  at  the  Chicago  Exhibition  of  Railway  Appliances,  the  same  general  plan 
was  observed,  but  the  conductor  was  placed  between  the  two  other  rails,  and  the 
current  was  conveyed  from  this  rail  to  the  car  through  stiff  wire  brushes  pressing  on 
each  side  of  the  rail.  These  were  operated  by  a lever  reaching  down  from  the  car. 
This  track  was  1,553  length. 

THE  ELECTRIC  LIGHT. — Setting  aside  natural  phenomena,  as 

the  lightning  and  St.  Elmo’s  fire,  and  all  mere  experiments  with  the  electric  spark, 
the  first  inventor  of  the  electric  light  was  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  who  in  th^  early  part 
of  the  century  produced  the  arc  light  with  a battery  of  2,000  cells.  The  mode  of 
producing  this  light  is  as  follows:  When  the  terminal  wires  of  an  electric  battery 

416 


THE  ELECTRIC  LIGHT. 


are  brought  together  and  then  separated  slightly  an  intense,  bright  light  between 
them  results,  and  this,  because  of  its  curved  form,  is  called  the  electric  arc.  Thft 
light,  in  temperature  as  well  as  brightness,  exceeds  all  other  artificial  sources  of  heat, 
by  its  means  the  hardest  substances,  even  the  diamond,  being  entirely  consumed. 
The  wires  of  the  battery  in  this  light  melt  and  drop  off  in  globules,  but  it  was  found 
that  hard  carbon  points  on  the  wires  would  prevent  this,  as  well  as  increase  the  in- 
tensity of  the  light.  Davy  used  pieces  of  charcoal.  Foucault,  in  his  experiments 
in  1844,  used  carbon  from  the  retorts  of  gas-works,  which  is  much  harder.  Foucault’s 
improvement  led  to  the  first  practical  use  of  the  electric  light.  It  was  used  to  il- 
luminate the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  in  Paris,  being  placed  on  the  knee  of  one  of  the 
statues  there,  and  amazing  all  beholders  with  its  brilliant  power.  The  carbon 
points,  though  not  destroyed  as  rapidly  as  wire,  yet  of  course  must  waste  in  the  con- 
suming heat  of  the  light.  In  time  the  distance  between  them  is  increased  until  the 
light  is  interrupted,  and  they  must  be  brought  together  again  to  renew  the  illumina- 
tion. Thomas  Wright,  of  London,  invented  the  first  apparatus  for  moving  the  points 
automatically  toward  each  other,  a feature  which  now  belongs  to  several  forms  of 
electric  lighting.  As  it  has  been  found  that  the  positive  carbon  wastes  more  rapidly 
than  the  negative,  that  point  is  made  to  move  over  a wider  space  than  the  other  in 
the  same  interval  of  time. 

In  iSssJules  Duboscq’s  electric  lamp — thus  far  the  most  perfect  of  the  kind — was 
shown  at  the  Paris  Exhibition,  and  Professor  Tyndall,  of  England,  adopted  it  for 
the  illustration  of  his  lectures  on  light  and  colors.  In  1858  the  works  of  the  new 
Westminster  bridge,  London,  were  illuminated  by  Watson’s  electric  light,  and  the 
following  year  the  magneto-electric  light,  invented  by  Professor  Holmes,  was  suc- 
cessfully tried  at  the  lighthouse  at  Dover.  In  1861  the  French  Government  pro- 
vided for  the  illumination  of  eight  coast  light-houses  by  the  electric  light.  But, 
though  improvements  were  made  in  the  invention  during  the  fifteen  years  following, 
little  was  accomplished  toward  practical  electric  lighting  until  the  invention  of 
JablochkofPs  candle.  Paul  Jablochkoff  was  a Russian,  who  for  his  scientific  knowL 
edge  and  skill  had  been  appointed  director  of  telegraph  lines  between  Moscow  and 
Kursk.  He  resigned  this  post  in  1875,  desiring  to  devote  his  time  wholly  to  scien-> 
tific  study.  He  intended  to  visit  the  Centennial  Exhibition  in  this  country  in  1876. 
but  on  his  way  hither  stopped  in  Paris,  where  a noted  chemist  induced  him  to  re^ 
main  by  placing  a large  laboratory  at  his  disposal.  Here  a few  months  later  ha 
produced  the  electric  candle,  whose  discovery  made  a great  sensation.  This  con- 
sisted of  two  carbons  placed  side  by  side,  separated  and  encased  in  an  insulating 
and  fusible  substance.  As  the  carbons  wasted  the  fusible  substance  was  also  con- 
sumed. The  light  given  by  this  candle  was  soft  and  steady,  and  a large  number  of 
them  speedily  came  into  use  in  Europe.  It  was  quite  overshadowed  in  importance, 
however,  by  the  incandescent  lamp,  which  was  first  invented  about  1870.  The  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  electric  lights  now  in  use  may  be  divided  into  five  groups,  thus;  i. 
Glow  lamps  or  incandescent  lamps,  in  which  the  light  is  produced  by  a bad  conduc- 
tor in  an  uninterrupted  circuit,  the  conductor  itself  being  not  directly  consumed.  2 
Mixed  or  semi-incandescent  lamps,  in  which  the  light  is  produced  at  the  place  of 
contact  between  two  conductors,  one  of  them  being  consumed  more  or  less  rapidly. 
3.  Regulated  lamps,  in  which  the  light  is  formed  by  the  voltaic  arc,  and  the  dis- 
tance of  the  carbons  is  continually  regulated  by  clockwork  or  other  means.  4. 
Electric  candles,  having  the  carbons  parallel,  as  above  described.  In  each  of  these 
groups  a series  of  different  lamps  have  been  invented,  differing  somewhat  in  details 
of  construction.  Thus  we  have,  in  the  incandescent  lamps,  the  Swan  lamp,  the 
Maxim  lamp,  the  Edison  lamp,  the  Siemens  lamp,  and  others.  We  may  briefly  de- 
scribe the  Edison  as  a type  of  the  class.  In  this  bamboo  fiber  is  used  for  the  carbon 
filament,  and  this  is  attached  to  platinum  wire.  By  means  of  machinery  the  bam- 
boo is  divided  into  small  fibers,  and  pressed  in  U-shaped  moulds,  then  put  into 
ovens,  where  they  are  allowed  to  become  carbonized.  They  are  then  attached  to 
the  plantinum  wire  and  fused  in  a glass  stopper.  A glass  tube  is  now  blown  into  a 
bulb,  the  stopper  is  placed  in  it,  and  both  bulb  and  stopper  are  fused  together. 
The  bulb  is  then  exhausted  of  its  air — for  the  electric  light  requires  a vacuum 
for  its  brilliancy — and  the  opening  at  its  apex  is  closed  by  fusing.  The  platinum 
wires  of  the  lamp  are  connected  with  the  copper  wires  from  a battery,  and  the  lamp 
is  ready  for  use.  A very  simple  contrivance  for  breaking  the  current  by  turning  a 

417 


STORAGE  OF  ELECTRICITT, 

key  serves  to  ignite  or  extinguish  the  lamps.  Each  lamp  is  guaranteed  to  burn  800 
hours;  after  about  that  period  both  the  platinum  and  the  carbon  are  exhausted  by 
slow  combustion,  and  a new  lamp  must  be  fitted  on.  The  principal  difference  be- 
tween the  incandescent  lamps  is  in  the  preparation  of  the  carbon  filament.  Those 
for  the  Swan  lamp  are  made  from  cotton  fibers  soaked  in  sulphuric  acid,  then  packed 
in  fine  pal-dust,  and  exposed  to  heat.  The  Maxim  lamp  filaments  are  prepared 
from  Bristol  paper;  those  of  the  Lane-Fox  lamp  from  hemp  and  coke;  those  of  the 
Bernstein  lamp — one  of  the  most  brilliant  made — are  of  silk  carbonized  in  coal-dust. 
The  half-incandescent  lamps  are  quite  a recent  invention,  the  first  being  made  in 
1878.  In  these  the  light  arises  at  the  point  of  contact,  and  the  essential  features  of 
the  plan  consist  of  a pencil  of  carbon  pressed  against  a carbon  block;  as  its  point  is 
consumed  the  pencil  is  pushed  forward,  thus  rendering  the  light  continuous.  Some 
eight  or  nine  different  lamps  have  been  invented  on  this  plan.  The  regulated  arc 
lamps  include  an  even  larger  number  of  patents,  of  which  the  best  known  in  this 
country  is  the  Brush  light.  The  lights  in  ail  these  are  formed  between  the  points 
of  the  carbon  rods,  and  the  details  of  clockwork  for  moving  forward  the  rods  as  they 
are  consumed  are  too  technical  for  description  Still  another  style  of  electric  lamp 
has  the  carbons  inclined  at  an  angle  to  each  other,  and  some  very  successful  lamps, 
as  the  Soleil,  have  been  made  on  this  plan.  It  might  be  here  noted  that  the  great 
impetus  given  to  the  electric  light  by  the  work  of  Mr.  Edi.son  was  not  so  much  in 
improving  the  lamp  as  in  cheapening  the  process  of  generating  the  electricity,  and 
inventing  a ready  mode  of  dividing  the  light.  Hitherto  the  expense  attendant 
upon  the  production  of  the  electric  force,  and  the  difficulty  of  using  it  simul- 
taneously at  a large  number  of  illuminating  points,  had  been  the  two  principal  bar- 
riers in  the  way  of  applying  the  electric  light  to  public  use. 

STORAGE  OF  ELECTRICITY. — It  must  be  noted,  to  begin  with, 

that  the  term  “storing  electricity”  conveys,  usually,  an  altogether  erroneous  idea  to 
the  uninitiated.  They  are  apt  to  conceive  of  it  as  pouring  electricity  into  some  re- 
ceptacle, as  we  pour  oil  into  a lamp,  to  be  used  when  needed.  But,  in  fact,  elec- 
tricity is  an  energy,  not  a substance,  and  therefore  is  not  capable  of  storage,  in  the 
ordinary  sense.  What  is  really  done  by  the  “storage”  apparatus  is  to  convert  elec- 
tricity into  chemical  energy,  under  such  circumstances  that,  by  proper  arrange- 
ments, it  may  be  readily  converted  back  into  electricity.  The  secondary  batteries 
used  for  the  storing  purpose  are  more  correctly  termed  accumulators.  The  first  bat- 
tery of  this  kind  was  made  by  Ritter  about  1840,,  and  it  consisted  of  a series  of  disks 
of  a single  metal,  alternated  with  cloth  or  card  moistened  in  a liquid  by  which  the 
metal  would  not  be  affected  chemically.  In  1859  Mr.  Gaston  Plante  made  a sec- 
ondary battery,  for  which  he  used  plates  of  lead,  instead  of  plates  of  platinum. 
Passing^  a current  through  these,  lead  oxide  was  deposited,  and  after  the  charging 
current  was  removed,  the  lead  and  lead  oxide  were  found  to  yield  a very  slight  cur- 
rent. To  increase  this  Plante  devised  the  plan  of  first  charging  the  plates,  then 
discharging,  then  charging  again  with  the  battery  current  reversed, and  so  on,until,by 
repeated  oxidations  and  subsequent  reductions  of  the  oxidized  material,  very  porous 
plates  were  made.  These,  by  their  porosity,  exposed  a large  surface  to  the  oxidizing 
action  of  the  current,  so  that  a small  porous  plate  took  up  as  much  electricity  as  one 
of  large  superficial  area.  Plante  found  that  by  connecting  a number  of  cells  to- 
gether, and  after  charging  them,  arranging  them  in  series,  that  is,  the  positive  plate 
of  one  connected  with  the  negative  plate  of  another,  and  so  on,  he  could  store  for 
use  quite  powerful  currents  of  electricity.  In  1880  another  electrician,  M.  Camille 
Faure,  devised  the  plan  of  coating  Plante’s  lead  plates  with  red  lead,  and  then  en- 
casing them  in  flannel.  The  advantage  of  the  red  lead  is  that  it  is  very  quickly 
made  porous,  and  therefore  the  process  of  repeated  charging  of  the  plates,  known 
as  the  “forming”  process,  was  reduced  from  weeks  to  days,  and  even  to  hours.  This 
discovery,  by  reducing  the  time  and  expense  of  making  the  secondary  battery,  gave 
it  a commercial  value  thai  it  never  had  before,  and  it  was  hailed  as  a great  advan- 
tage. Since  that  time  a number  of  patents  have  been  obtained  lor  storage  batteries, 
and  they  now  exist  in  different  forms,  but  generally  modeled  on  the  inventions  of 
Plante  and  Faure.  The  efforts  of  inventors  have  been  mainly  directed  toward  re- 
ducing the  weight  of  the  cells  and  to  devising  new  ways  of  holding  the  red  lead  on 
the  plates.  This  last-named  substance,  becoming  porous,  drops  off  readily,  and  for 

418 


ELECTRICAL  TERMS. 


this  reason  the  encasements  of  flannel,  etc.,  were  first  devised.  In  some  of  the  stor- 
age batteries,  a plate,  or  frame,  of  cast  lead  is  used,  with  receptacles,  cells,  etc., 
which  are  filled  with  the  red  lead. 

ELECTRICAL  TERMS. — The  technical  terms  used  in  regard  to 

electricity  refer  to  units  of  various  nature.  Thus  the  unit  of  capacity  is  one  farad;  th^ 
unit  of  activity,  one  watt;  the  unit  of  work  one  joule;  the  unit  of  quantity,  one  coul- 
omb; the  unit  of  current,  one  ampere;  the  unit  of  resistance,  one  ohm;  the  unit  of 
magnetic  field,  one  gauss;  the  unit  of  pressure,  one  volt;  the  unit  of  force,  one 
dyne.  The  names  are  mostly  derived  from  the  names  of  men  that  have  been  famous 
in  the  field  of  electrical  research.  Thus  Michael  Faraday,  James  Watt  and  James 
P.  Joule,  famous  English  discoverers,  give  their  names  to  the  first  three  units  men- 
tioned; Charles  A.  Coulomb  and  Andre  M.  Ampere,  French  inventors,  to  the  two 
units  following;  G.  S.  Ohm  and  Carl  F.  Gauss,  Germans,  name  two  more  units;  and 
the  volt  is  named  from  the  Italian  discoverer,  Volta.  The  dyne  is  derived  from  the 
root  word  of  dynamo,  itself  meaning  force. 

Preserving  Wood. — There  have  been  a number  of  processes 

patented  for  preserving  wood.  One  of  them,  very  generally  used,  consists  in  im- 
mersing the  timber  in  a bath  of  corrosive  sublimate.  Another  process  consists  in  first 
filling  the  pores  with  a solution  of  chloride  of  calcium  under  pressure,  and  next 
forcing  in  a solution  of  sulphate  of  iron,  by  which  an  insoluble  sulphate  of  lime  is 
formed  in  the  body  of  the  wood,  which  is  thus  rendered  nearly  as  hard  as  stone. 
Wood  prepared  in  this  way  is  now  very  largely  used  for  railroad  ties.  Another  pro- 
cess consists  in  impregnating  the  wood  with  a solution  of  chloride  of  zinc.  Yet 
another  way  is  to  thoroughly  impregnate  the  timber  with  oil  of  tar  containing  crea- 
sote  and  a crude  solution  of  acetate  of  iron.  The  process  consists  in  putting  the 
wood  in  a cylindrical  vessel,  connected  with  a powerful  air  pump.  The  air  is  with- 
drawn, and  the  liquid  subjected  to  pressure,  so  that  as  much  of  it  as  possible  is 
forced  into  the  pores  of  the  wood.  The  processes  above  given  not  only  season  the 
timber  so  that  it  is  not  subject  to  dry  rot,  but  also  keep  it  from  being  injured  by  the 
weather,  or  being  attacked  by  insects  or  worms. 

To  Make  Cloth  Waterproof. — There  have  been  various 

devices  for  rendering  cloth  waterproof  without  the  use  of  India  rubber.  The  most 
successful  of  these,  no  doubt,  is  the  Stenhouse  patent.  This  consists  of  the  appli- 
cation of  paraffine  combined  with  drying  oil.  Paraffine  was  first  used  alone,  but  it 
was  found  to  harden  and  break  off  from  the  cloth  after  a time.  When  drying  oil 
was  added,  however,  even  in  a very  small  quantity,  it  was  found  that  the  two  sub- 
stances, by  the  absorption  of  oxygen,  became  converted  into  a tenacious  substance 
very  like  resin.  To  apply  this  the  paraffine  is  melted  with  drying  oil,  and  then  cast 
into  blocks.  The  composition  can  then  be  applied  to  fabrics  by  rubbing  them  over 
with  a block  of  it,  either  cold  or  gently  warmed.  Or  the  melted  mixture  may  be 
applied  with  a brush  and  the  cloth  then  passed  through  hot  rollers  in  order  to 
cover  its  entire  substance  perfectly.  This  application  makes  cloth  very  repellant  to 
water,  though  still  pervious  to  air. 

The  Rule  of  the  Road. — The  “rule  of  the  road”  in  the 

United  states  is  “turn  to  the  right;”  in  England  it  is  the  reverse.  The  rule  holds  in 
this  country  in  the  case  where  two  vehicles  going  in  opposite  directions  meet. 
When  one  vehicle  overtakes  another  the  foremost  gives  way  to  the  left  and  the 
other  passes  by  on  the  “offside;”  and  when  a vehicle  is  crossing  the  direction  of 
another  it  keeps  to  the  left  and  crosses  in  its  rear.  These  two  rules  are  the  same  in 
this  country  and  in  England,  and  why  the  rule  concerning  meeting  vehicles 
should  have  been  changed  it  is  impossible  to  say.  We  find  this  point  of  difference 
noted  by  all  authorities,  but  no  reason  for  it  is  ever  suggested.  Probably,  as  it  is 
easier  to  turn  to  the  right  than  to  the  left,  it  was  adopted  as  the  more  preferable 
custom  in  some  of  the  early  colonies,  and  in  due  time  became  embodied  in  local 
law,  and  thus  was  handed  down  to  later  times. 

Piano  Polish. — Take  equal  proportions  of  turpentine,  linseed 

*1  and  vinegar.  Mix;  rub  in  well  with  a piece  of  flannel  cloth.  Then  polish  with  a 
piece  of  chamois  skin.  This  treatment  will  entirely  remove  the  dingy  appearance 
that  age  gives  to  fine  woods. 


419 


NAMES  AND  THEIR  MEANING. 


CHRISTIAN  NAMES  OF  MEN. 

Aaron,  Hebrew,  a mountain,  or  lofty. 
Abel,  Hebrew,  vanity. 

Abraham,  Hebrew,  the  father  of  many, 
Absalom,  Hebrew,  the  father  of  peace. 
Adam,  Hebrew,  red  earth. 

Adolphus,  Saxon,  happiness  and  help. 
Adrian,  Latin,  one  who  helps. 

Alan,  Celtic,  harmony;  or  Slavonic,  a 
hound. 

Albert,  Saxon,  all  bright. 

Alexander,  Greek,  a helper  of  men. 
Alfred,  Saxon,  all  peace. 

Alonzo,  form  of  Alphonso,  q.  v. 

Alphonso,  German,  ready  or  willing. 
Ambrose,  Greek,  immortal. 

Amos,  Hebrew,  a burden. 

Andrew,  Greek,  courageous. 

Anthony,  Latin,  flourishing. 

Archibald,  German,  a bold  observer. 
Arnold,  German,  a maintainer  of  honor. 
Arthur,  British,  a strong  man. 

Aulusdn,’  } ''enerable,  grand. 

Baldwin,  German,  a bold  winner. 
Bardulph,  German,  a famous  helper. 
Barnaby,  Hebrew,  a prophet’s  son. 
Bartholomew,  Hebrew,  the  son  of  him 
who  made  the  waters  to  rise, 
Beaumont,  French,  a pretty  mount. 
Bede,  Saxon,  prayer. 

Benjamin,  Hebrew,  the  son  of  a right 
hand. 

Bennet  Latin,  blessed, 

Bernard,  Gemnan,  bear’s  heart, 

Bertram,  German,  fair,  illustrious. 
Bertrand.  Gerjnan,  bright  raven. 
Boniface,  Latin,  a well  doer. 

Brian,  French,  having  a thundering 
voice. 

Cadwallader,  British,  valiant  in  war. 
Csesar,  Latin  adorned  with  hair. 

Csleb,  Hebrew,  a dog. 

Cecil,  Latin,  dim-sighted. 

Charles,  German,  noble-spirited. 
Christopher,  Greek,  bearing  Christ. 
Clement,  Latin,  mild  tempered. 

Conrad,  German,  able  counsel. 
Constantine,  Latin,  resolute. 

Cornelius,  Latin,  meaning  uncertain. 
Crispin,  Latin,  having  curled  locks. 
Cuthbert,  Saxon,  known  famously. 

Dan,  Hebrew,  judgment. 

Daniel,  Hebrew,  God  is  judge. 

David,  Hebrew,  well-beloved. 

Denis,  Greek,  belonging  to  the  God  of 
wine. 

Douglas,  Gaelic,  dark  gray. 

Duncan,  Saxon,  brown  chief. 

Dunstan,  Saxon,  most  high. 

Edgar,  Saxon,  happy  honor. 

Edmund,  Saxon,  happy  peace. 


Edward,  Saxon,  happy  keeper. 

Edwin,  Saxon,  happy  conqueror. 
Egbert,  Saxon,  ever  bright. 

Elijah,  Hebrew,  God  the  Lord. 

Elisha,  Hebrexv,  the  salvation  of  G'^d. 
Emmanuel,  Hebrew,  God  with  us. 
Enoch,  Hebrew,  dedicated. 

Ephraim,  Hebrew,  fruitful. 

Erasmus,  Greek,  lovely,  worthy  to  be 
loved. 

Ernest,  Greek,  earnest,  serious. 

Esau,  Hebrew,  hairy. 

Eugene,  Greek,  noble,  descended. 
Eustace,  Greek,  standing  firm. 

Evan,  or  Ivan,  British,  the  same 
John. 

Everard,  German,  well  reported. 
Ezekiel,  Hebrew,  the  strength  of  God. 
Felix,  Latin,  happy. 

Ferdinand,  German,  pure  peace. 

Fergus,  Saxon,  manly  strength. 

Francis,  German,  free. 

Frederic,  German,  rich  peace. 

Gabriel,  Hebrew,  the  strength  of  God. 
GoefFrey,  German,  joyful. 

George,  Greek,  a husbandman. 

Gerard,  Saxon,  all  towardliness. 

Gideon,  Hebrew,  a breaker. 

Gilbert,  Saxon,  bright  as  gold. 

Giles,  Greek,  a little  goat. 

Godard,  German,  a godly  disposition. 
Godfrey,  German,  God’s  peace. 

Godwin,  German,  victorious  in  God. 
Griffith,  British,  having  great  faith. 

Guy,  French,  a leader. 

Hannibal,  Punic,  a gracious  lord. 
Harold,  Saxon,  a champion. 

Hector,  Greek,  a stout  defender. 

Henry,  German,  a rich  lord. 

Herbert,  German,  a bright  lord. 
Hercules,  Greek,  the  glory  of  Hera,  or 
Juno. 

Hebrew,  cleaving  to  ihe  Lord. 
Horace,  Latin,  meaning  uncertain. 
Horatio,  Italian,  worthy  to  be  beheld. 
Howel,  British,  sound  or  whole. 

Hubert,  German,  a bright  color. 

Hugh,  Dutch,  high,  lofty. 

Humphrey,  German,  domestic  peace. 
Ignatius,  Latin,  fiery. 

Ingram,  German,  of  angelic  purity. 
Isaac,  Hebrew,  laughter. 

Jabez,  Hebrew,  one  who  causes  pain. 
Jacob,  Hebrew,  a supplanter. 

James,  orjacques,  beguiling. 

Joab,  Hebrew,  fatherhood. 

Job,  Hebrew,  sorrowing. 

Joel,  Hebrew,  acquiescing. 

John,  Hebrew,  the  grace  of  the  Lord. 
Jonah,  Hebrew,  a dove. 

Jonathan,  Hebrew,  the  gift  of  the  Lord 
Joscelin,  Germa7t,]\xs\..  [420 


NAMES  AND  THEIR  MEANING. 


Joseph,  Hebrew^  addition. 

Joshua,  Hebrew,  a Saviour. 

Josiah  or  Josais,  Hebrew,  the  fire  of  the 
Lord, 

Julius,  Latin,  soft  haired. 

Lambert,  Saxon,  a fair  lamb. 

Lancelot,  Spanish,  a little  lance. 
Laurence,  Latin,  crowned  with  laurels. 
Lazarus,  Hebrew,  destitute  of  help. 
Leonard,  German,  like  a lion. 

Leopold,  German,  defending  the  people. 
Lewis  or  Louis,  French,  the  defender  of 
the  people. 

Lionel,  Latin,  a little  lion. 

Llewellin,  British,  like  a lion. 
Llewellyn,  Celtic,  lightning. 

Lucius,  Latin,  shining. 

Luke,  Greek,  a wood  or  grove. 

Manfred,  German,  great  peace. 

Mark,  Latin,  a hammer. 

Martin,  Lxitin,  martial. 

Matthew,  Hebrew,  a gift  or  present. 
Maurice,  Latin,  sprung  of  a Moor. 
Meredith,  British,  the  roaring  of  the 
sea. 

Michael,  Hebrew,  who  is  like  God? 
Morgan,  British,  a mariner. 

Moses,  Hebrew,  drawn  out. 

Nathaniel,  Hebrew,  the  gift  of  God. 
Neal,  French,  somewhat  black. 
Nicholas,  Greek,  victorious  over  the  peo- 
ple. 

Noel,  French.^  belonging  to  one^s  nativ- 

ity- 

Norman,  French,  one  born  In  Normandy. 
Obadiah,  Hebrew,  the  servant  of  the 
Lord. 

Oliver,  Latin,  an  olive. 

Orlando,  Italian,  counsel  for  the  land. 
Orson,  Latin,  a bear, 

Osmund,  Saxon,  house  peace. 

Oswald,  Saxon,  ruler  of  a house. 

Owen,  British,  well  descended. 

Patrick,  Latin,  a nobleman. 

Paul,  Latin,  small,  little. 

Paulinus,  Latin,  little  Paul. 

Percival,  French,  a place  in  France. 
Percy,  English,  adaptation  ol  “pierce 
eye.** 

Peregrine,  Latin,  outlandish. 

Peter,  Greek,  a rock  or  stone. 

Philip,  Greek,  a lover  of  horses. 

Phineas,  Hebrew,  of  bold  countenance. 
Ralph,  contracted  from  Randolph,  or 
Randal,  or  Ranulph,  Saxon,  pure  help. 
Raymond,  German,  quiet  peace. 
Reuben,  Hebrew,  the  son  of  vision. 
Reynold,  German,  a lover  of  purity. 
Richard,  Saxon,  powerful. 

Robert,  German,  famous  in  counsel. 
Roderick,  German,  rich  in  fame. 

Roger,  German,  strong  counsel. 


Roland  or  Rowland,  German,  counsel 
for  the  land. 

Rollo,  form  of  Roland,  q.  v. 

Rufus,  Latin,  reddish. 

Samson,  Hebrew,  a little  son. 

Samuel,  Hebrew,  heard  by  God. 

Saul,  Hebrew,  desired. 

Sebastian,  Greek,  to  be  reverenced. 

Seth,  Hebrew,  appointed. 

Silas,  Latin,  sylvan  or  living  in  the 
woods. 

Simeon,  Hebrew,  hearing. 

Simon,  Hebrew,  obedient. 

Solomon,  Hebrew,  peaceable. 

Stephen,  Greek,  a Ci'own  or  garland. 
Swithin,  Saxon,  very  high. 

Theobald,  Saxon,  bold  over  the  people. 
Theodore,  Greek,  the  gift  of  God. 
Theodosius,  Greek,  given  of  God. 
Theophilus.  Greek,  a lover  of  God. 
Thomas,  Hebrew,  a twin. 

Timothy,  Greek,  a fearer  of  God. 

Titus,  Greek,  meaning  uncertain. 

Toby,  or  Tobias,  Hebrew,  the  goodness 
of  the  Lord. 

Valentine,  Latin,  powerful. 

Victor,  Latin,  conqueror. 

Vincent,  Latin,  conquering. 

Vivian,  Latin,  living. 

Walter,  German,  a conqueror. 

Walwin,  German,  a conqueror. 

Wilfred,  Saxon,  bold  and  peaceful. 
William,  German,  defending  many. 
Zaccheus,  Syriac,  innocent. 

Zachary,  Hebrew,  remembering  the 
Lord. 

Zebedee,  Syriac,  having  an  Inheritance. 
Zechariah,  Hebrew,  remembered  of  the 
Lord. 

Zedekiah,  Hebrew,  the  justice  of  the 
Lord. 

CHRISTIAN  NAMES  OF  WOMEN. 

Ada,  German,  same  as  Edith,  q.  v. 
Adela,  German,  same  as  Adeline,  q.  v. 
Adelaide,  German,  same  as  Adeline,^^.  v. 
Adeline,  German,  a princess. 

Agatha,  Greek,  good. 

Agnes,  German,  chaste. 

Alethea,  Greek,  the  truth. 

Althea,  Greek,  hunting. 

Alice,  Alicia,  German,  noble. 

Alma,  Latin,  benignant. 

Amabel,  Latin,  loveable. 

Amy,  Amelia,  French,  a beloved. 
Angelina,  Greek,  lovely,  angelic. 

Anna,  or  Anne,  Hebrew,  gracious. 
Arabella,  Latin,  a fair  altar. 

Aureola,  Latin,  like  gold. 

Aurora,  Latin,  morning  brightness. 
Barbara,  Latin,  foreign  or  strange. 
Beatrice,  Latin,  making  happy.  [431 


NAMES  AND  THEIR  MEANING, 


Bella,  Italiany  beautiful. 

Benedicta,  Latin ^ blessed. 

Bernice,  Greek,  bringing  victory. 

Bertha,  Greek,  bright  or  famous. 

Bessie,  short  form  of  Elizabeth,  q.  v. 
Blanch,  French,  fair. 

Bona,  Latin,  good. 

Bridget,  Irish,  shining  bright. 

Camilla,  Latin,  attendant  at  a sacrifice. 
Carlotta,  Italian,  same  as  Charlotte,  q.v. 
Carolin€,Ieminine  of  Caroles,  the  Latin 
of  Charles,  noble  spirited. 

Cassandra,  Greek,  a reformer  of  men, 
Catherine,  Greek,  pure  or  clean. 

Cecilia,  Latin,  from  Cecil. 

Charity,  Greek,  love,  bounty. 

Charlotte,  French,  all  noble. 

Chloe,  Greek,  a green  herb. 

Christiana,  Greeks  belonging  to  Christ. 
Cicely,  a corruption  ^Cecilia,  q v. 
Clara,  Latin,  clear  or  bright 
Clarissa,  Latin,  clear  or  bright. 
Constance,  Latin,  constant. 

Dagmar,  German,  ]oy  of  the  Danes. 
Deborah,  Hebrew,  a bee. 

Diana,  Greek,  Jupiter’s  daughter. 
Dorcas,  Greek,  a wild  roe. 

Dorothea  or  Dorothy,  Greek,  the  gift  oi 
God. 

Edith,  Saxon,  happiness. 

Eleanor,  Saxon,  all  fruitful. 

Eliza,  Elizabeth,  Hebrew,  the  oath  oi 
God. 

Ellen,  another  form  ^Helen,  q.  v. 
Emily,  corrupted  from  Amelia. 

Emma,  German,  a nurse. 

Esther,  Hesther,  Hebrew,  secret. 

Eudoia,  Greek,  prospering  in  the  way. 
Eudora,  Greek,  good  gift. 

Eudosia,  Greek,  good  gift  or  well-given. 
Eugenia,  French,  well-born. 

Eunice,  Greek,  fair  victory. 

Eva  or  Eve,  Hebrew,  causing  life. 
Fanny,  diminuthte  of  Francis,  q.  v. 
Fenella,  Greek,  bright  to  look  on. 

Flora,  Latin,  flowers. 

Florence,  Latin,  blooming,  flourishing. 
Francis,  German,  free. 

Gertrude,  German,  all  truth. 

Grace,  Latin,  favor. 

Hagar,  Hebrew,  a stranger. 

Hadassah,  Hebrew,  form  of  Esther,  q.  v. 
Hannah,  Hebrew,  gracious. 

Harriet,  German,  head  of  the  house. 
Helen  or  Helena,  Greek,  alluring. 
Henrietta, and  dim.  of  Henry,  q.  v. 
Hephzibah,  Hebrew,  my  delight  is  in 
her. 

Hilda,  German,  warrior  maiden. 
Honora,  Latin,  honorable. 

Huldah,  Hebrew,  a weazel. 

Isabella,  Spanish^  fair  Eliza. 


Jane  or  Jeanne,  fern.  ^John,  q.  v. 
Janet,  Jeannette,  little  Jane. 

J emima,  Hebrew,  a dove. 

Joan,  Hebrew,  fern,  of  John,  q.  v. 
Joanna  or  J oh  anna,  form  ^Joan,  q.  v, 
Joyce,  French,  pleasant. 

Judith,  Hebrew,  praising. 

Julia,  Juliana, Julius,  q.  v, 
Katherine,  form  <f  Catherine,  q.  v. 
Keturah,  Hebrew,  incense. 

Kezsiah,  Hebrew,  cassia. 

Laura,  Latin,  a laurel. 

Lavinia,  Latin,  of  Latium. 

Letitia,  Latin,  joy  of  gladness. 

Lilian,  Lily,  Latin,  a lily. 

Lois,  Greek,  better. 

Louisa,  German,  fern,  of  Louis,  q.  v. 
Lucretia,  Latin,  a chaste  Roman  lady 
Lucy,  Latin,  feminine  ^Lucius. 

Lydia,  Greek,  descended  from  Lud. 
Mabel,  Latin,  lovely  or  loveable. 
M.ade\ine,  form  of  Magdalen,  q.  v, 
Magdalen,  Syriac,  magnificent. 
Margaret,  Greek,  a pearl. 

Maria,  '^arie,  forms  of  Mary,  q.  v, 
Martha,  Hebrew,  bitterness. 

Mary,  Hebrew,  bitter. 

Matilda,  German,  a lady  of  honor. 
Maud,  German,  form  ^Matilda,  q.  v. 
May,  Latin,  month  of  May,  or  dim.  of 
Mary,  q.  v. 

Mercy,  English,  compassion. 

Mildred,  Saxon,  speaking  mild. 

Minnie,  dim.  of  Margaret,  q v. 

Naomi,  Hebrew,  alluring. 

Nest,  British,  the  same  as  Agnes. 

Nicola,  Greek,  feminine  of  Nicholas. 
Olive,  Olivia,  Latin,  an  olive. 

Olympic,  Greek,  heavenly. 

Ophelia,  Greek,  a serpent. 

Parnell,  or  Petronilla,  little  Peter, 
Patience,  Latin,  bearing  patiently. 
Paulina,  Latin,  feminine  of  Paulinus. 
Penelope,  Greek,  a weaver. 

Persis,  Greek,  destroying. 

Philadelphia,  Greek,  brotherly  love. 
Philippa,  Greek,  feminine  of  Ehih^. 
Phoebe,  Greek,  the  light  of  life. 

Phyllis,  Greek,  a green  bough. 

Polly,  variation  ^M-olly,  dim.  of  Mary. 

q.  V, 

Priscilla,  Latin,  somewhat  old. 
Prudence,  Latin,  discretion. 

Pysche,  Greek,  the  soul. 

Rachel,  Hebrew,  a lamb. 

Rebecca,  Hebrew,  fat  or  plump. 

Rhoda,  Greek,  a rose. 

Rosa  or  Rose,  Latin,  a rose. 

Rosalie  or  Rosaline,  Latin,  little  rose. 
Rosalind,  Latin,  beautiful  as  a rose. 
Rosabella,  Italian,  a fair  rose. 
Rosamond,  Saxon,  rose  of  peace.  [422 


NAMES  AND  THEIR  MEANING. 


Roxana,  Persian,  dawn  of  day. 

Ruth,  Hebre^v,  trembling,  or  beauty. 
Sabina,  Latin,  sprung  irom  the  Sabines. 
Salome,  Hebrew,  perfect. 

Sapphira,  Greek,  like  a sapphire  stone. 
Sarah,  Hebrew,  a princess. 

Selina,  Greek,  the  moon. 

Sibylla,  Greek,  the  counsel  of  God. 
Sophia,  Greek,  wisdom. 

Sophronia,  Greek,  of  a sound  mind. 
Susan,  Susanna,  Hebrew,  a lily. 


Tabitha,  Syriac,  a roe. 
Temperance,  Latin,  moderation 
Theodosia,  Greek,  given  by  God 
Tryphena,  Greek,  delicate. 
Trvphosa,  Greek,  delicious. 
Victoria,  Latin,  victory. 

Vida,  Er se,  feminine  of  Y)2n\^. 
Ursula,  Latin,  a she  bear. 
Walburga,  Saxon,  gracious. 
Winifred,  S2Hcon,  winning  peac^. 
Zenobia,  Greek,  the  life  of  Jupiter. 


There — my  blessing  with  thee! 

And  these  few  precepts  in  thy  memory 

See  thou  character:  Give  thy  thoughts  no  tongue. 

Nor  any  unproportioned  thought  his  act. 

Be  thou  familiar,  but  by  no  means  vulgar. 

Those  friends  thou  hast,  and  their  adoption  tried. 

Grapple  them  to  thy  soul  with  hoops  of  steel; 

But  do  not  dull  thy  palm  with  entertainment 
Of  each  new-hatch’d,  unfledged  comrade.  Beware 
Of  entrance  to  a quarrel,  but,  being  in. 

Bear 't  that  th’  opposed  may  beware  of  thee. 

Give  every  man  thy  ear,  but  few  thy  voice. 

Take  each  man’s  censure,  but  reserve  thy  judgment 
Costly  thy  habit  as  thy  purse  can  buy. 

But  not  express’d  in  fancy;  rich,  not  gaudy; 

For  the  apparel  oft  proclaims  the  man.  . . . 

Neither  a borrower  nor  a lender  be; 

For  loan  oft  loses  both  itself  and  friend. 

And  borrowing  dulls  the  edge  of  husbandry. 

This  above  all : To  thine  own  self  be  true. 

And  it  must  follow,  as  the  night  the  day. 

Thou  canst  not  then  be  false  to  any  man. — Shakespeare. 

Protecting  Lead  Water  Pipes. — To  protect  lead  water- 

pipes  from  the  action  of  water,  which  often  affects  them  chemically,  partially  dis- 
solving them,  and  injuring  the  pipes,  as  well  as  poisoning  the  water,  fill  the  pipes 
with  a warm  and  concentrated  solution  of  sulphide  of  potassium  or  sodium;  leave 
the  solution  in  contact  with  the  lead  for  about  fifteen  minutes  and  then  blow  it  out. 
This  coats  the  inside  of  the  pipes  with  sulphite  of  lead,  which  is  absolutely  insolu- 
ble, and  cannot  be  acted  upon  by  water  at  all. 

Fireproof  Wood. — Soak  27.5  parts  by  weight  of  sulphate  of 

zinc,ii  of  potash;  22  of  alum,  and  n of  manganic  oxide  in  luke  warm  water  in  an  iron 
boiler,  and  gradually  add  ii  parts  by  weight  of  60  per  cent,  sulphuric  acid.  The 
wood  to  be  prepared  is  placed  upon  an  iron  grating  in  an  apparatus  of  suitable  size, 
the  separate  pieces  being  placed  at  least  an  inch  apart.  The  liquid  is  then  poured 
into  the  apparatus,  and  the  wood  allowed  to  remain  completely  covered  for  three 
hours,  and  is  then  air-dried. 

Cement  for  Rubber  Boots. — A good  cement  for  rubber 

boots  is  made  by  dissolving  crude  rubber  in  bisulphuret  of  carbon,  making  the  solu- 
tion rather  thin.  Put  the  cement  upon  the  patch  and  the  boot,  heat  both,  and  put 
them  together. 

Furniture  Polish. — For  French  polishing  cabinet-makers 

use:  Pale  shellac,  i pound;  mastic,  i 2-5  ounces;  alcohol  of  90  per  cent,  standard, 
I to  1 1-5  pints.  Dissolve  cold,  with  frequent  stirring. 

423 


The  Standard  Silver  Dollar. 

The  coinage  of  the  standard  silver  dollar  was  first  authorized 
bj  Act  of  April  2,  1792.  Its  weight  was  to  be  416  grains  stand- 
ard silver;  fineness,  892.4;  which  was  equivalent  to  37iJ^  grains 
of  fine  silver,  with  44%  grains  of  pure  copper  alloy.  This 
weight  was  changed  by  act  of  January  18,  1837,  to  412)^  grains, 
and  fineness  changed  to  900,  thus  preserving  the  same  amount  of 
pure  silver  as  before.  By  act  of  February  12,  1873,  the  coinage 
was  discontinued.  The  total  number  of  silver  dollars  coined 
from  1792  to  1873  was  8,045,838.  The  act  of  1873  provided  for 
the  coinage  of  the  “trade  dollar,”  of  weight  420  grains,  and  an 
act  passed  in  June,  1874,  ordered  that  all  silver  coins  should  only 
be  “legal  tender  at  their  nominal  value  for  amounts  not  exceed- 
ing $5.”  The  effect  of  these  acts  was  the  “demonetization”  of 
silver,  of  which  so  much  has  been  said.  Feb.  28,  1878,  the  coin- 
age of  the  standard  dollar  of  412)^  grains  was  revived  by  act  of 
Congress;  $2,000,000  per  month  was  ordered  coined,  and  the 
coins  were  made  legal  tender  for  all  debts,  public  and  private. 
From  February,  1878,  to  Nov.  i,  1885,213,257,594  of  these  stand- 
ard dollars  were  coined  under  the  above  act. 


Standard  Time. 

What  is  known  as  the  “new  standard  time”  was  adopted  by 
agreement  by  all  the  principal  railroads  of  the  United  States  at 
12  o’clock,  noon,  on  Nov.  18,  1883.  The  system  divides  the  con- 
tinent into  five  longitudinal  belts,  and  fixes  a meridian  of  time 
for  each  belt.  These  meridians  are  fifteen  degrees  of  longitude, 
corresponding  to  one  hour  of  time,  apart.  Eastern  Maine,  New 
Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia  use  the  the  60th  meridian;  the  Can- 
adas, New  England,  the  Middle  States,  Virginia  and  the  Caro- 
linas  use  the  75th  meridian,  which  is  that  of  Philadelphia;  the 
States  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  Alabama,  Georgia  and  Florida, 
and  westward,  including  Texas,  Kansas,  and  the  larger  part  of 
Nebraska  and  Dakota,  use  the  90th  meridian,  which  is  that  of 
New  Orleans.  The  Territories  to  the  western  border  of  Arizona 
and  Montana  go  by  the  time  of  the  105th  meridian,  which  is  that  of 
Denver;  and  the  Pacific  States  employ  the  120th  meridian.  The 
time  divisions  are  known  as  intercolonial  time,  eastern  time, 
central  time,  mountain  time  and  Pacific  time.  A traveler  pass- 
ing from  one  time  belt  to  another  will  find  his  watch  an  hour  too 
fast  or  too  slow,  according  to  the  direction  in  which  he  is  going. 
All  points  in  any  time  division  using  the  time  of  the  meridian  must 
set  their  time-pieces  faster  or  slower  than  the  time  indicated  by 
the  sun,  according  as  their  position  is  east  or  west  of  the  line. 
This  change  of  sj^stem  reduced  the  time  standards  used  by  the 
railroads  frorn  fifty -three  to  five,  a great  convenience  to  the  rail- 
roads and  the  traveling  public.  The  suggestion  leading  to  the 
adoption  of  this  new  system  originated  with  Professor  Abbe,  of 
the  Signal  Bureau  at  Washington.  [424] 


Theosophy. 

Much  is  said  nowadays  about  theosophy,  which  is  really  but 
another  name  for  mysticism.  It  is  not  a philosophy,  for  it  will 
have  nothing  to  do  with  pholosophical  methods:  it  might  be 
called  a religion,  though  it  has  never  had  a following  large 
enough  to  make  a very  strong  impression  on  the  world’s  religious 
history.  The  name  is  from  the  Greek  word  theosophia — divine 
wisdom — and  the  object  of  theosophical  study  is  professedly  to 
understand  the  nature  of  divine  things.  It  differs,  however,  from 
both  philosophy  and  theology  even  when  these  have  the  same 
object  of  investigation.  For,  in  seeking  to  learn  the  divine  nature 
and  attributes,  philosophy  employs  the  methods  and  principles 
of  natural  reasoning;  theology  uses  these,  adding  to  them  cer- 
tain principles  derived  from  revelation.  Theosophy,  on  the 
other  hand,  professes  to  exclude  all  reasoning  processes  as  im- 
perfect, and  to  derive  its  knowledge  from  direct  communication 
with  God  himself.  It  does  not,  therefore,  accept  the  truths  of 
recorded  revelation  as  immutable,  but  as  subject  to  modification 
by  later  direct  and  personal  revelations.  The  theosophical  idea 
has  had  followers  from  the  earliest  times.  Since  the  Christian 
era  we  may  class  among  theosophists  such  sects  as  Neo-Platon- 
ists,  the  Hesychasts  of  the  Greek  Church,  the  Mystics  of  mediae- 
val times,  and,  in  later  times,  the  disciples  of  Paracelsus,  Thal- 
hauser,  Bohme,  Swedenborg,  and  others.  Recently  a small  sect 
has  arisen,  which  has  taken  the  name  of  Theosophists.  Its 
leader  was  an  English  gehtleman  who  had  become  fascinated 
with  the  doctrine  of  Buddhism.  Taking  a few  of  his  followers 
to  India,  they  have  been  prosecuting  their  studies  there,  certain 
individuals  attracting  considerable  attention  by  a claim  to  mirac- 
ulous powers.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  the  revelations  they 
have  claimed  to  receive  have  been,  thus  far,  without  element  of 
benefit  to  the  human  race. 


The  Evolution  Theory. 

The  evolution  or  development  theory  declares  the  universe 
as  it  now  exists  to  be  the  result  of  a long  series  of  changes,  which 
were  so  far  related  to  each  other  as  to  form  a series  of  growths 
analogous  to  the  evolving  of  the  parts  of  a growing  organism. 
Herbert  Spencer  defines  evolution  as  a progress  from  the  homo- 
geneous to  the  heterogeneous,  from  general  to  special,  from  the 
simple  to  the  complex  elements  of  life,  and  it  is  believed  that 
this  process  can  be  traced  in  the  formation  of  worlds  in  space,  in 
the  multiplication  of  types  and  species  among  animals  and 
plants,  in  the  origin  and  changes  of  languages  and  literature  and 
the  arts,  and  also  in  all  the  changes  of  human  institutions  and 
society.  Asserting  the  general  fact  of  progress  in  nature,  the 
evolution  theory  shows  that  the  method  of  this  progress  has 
been  (i)  by  the  multiplication  of  organs  and  functions;  (2)  ac- 


THE  MIND  CURB. 


cording  to  a defined  unity  of  plan,  although  with  (3)  the  inter- 
vention of  transitional  forms,  and  (4)  with  modifications  depend- 
ent upon  surrounding  conditions.  Ancient  writers  occasionally 
seemed  to  have  a glimmering  knowledge  of  the  fact  of  progress 
in  nature,  but  as  a theory  “evolution”  belongs  to  the  enlighten- 
ment of  the  nineteenth  century.  Leibnitz,  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  first  uttered  the  opinion  that  the  earth 
was  once  in  a fluid  condition,  and  Kant,  about  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  definitely  propounded  the  nebular  hypothesis, 
which  was  enlarged  as  a theory  by  the  Herschels.  The  first 
writer  to  suggest  the  transmutation  of  species  among  animals  was 
Buflfon,  about  1750,  and  other  writers  followed  out  the  idea.  The 
eccentric  Lord  Monboddo  was  the  first  to  suggest  the  possible  de- 
scent of  man  from  the  ape,  about  1774.  In  1813  Dr.  W.  C.  Wells  first 
proposed  to  apply  the  principle  of  natural  selection  to  the  natur- 
al history  of  man,  and  in  1822  Professor  Herbert  first  asserted 
the  probable  transmutation  of  species  of  plants.  In  1844  a book 
appeared  called  “Vestiges  of  Creation,”  which,  though  evidently 
not  written  by  a scientific  student,  yet  attracted  great  attention 
by  its  bold  and  ingenious  theories.  The  authorship  of  this  book 
was  never  revealed  until  after  the  death  of  Robert  Chambers,  a 
few  years  since,  it  became  known  that  this  publisher,  whom  no 
one  would  ever  have  suspected  of  holding  such  hetorodox  the- 
ories, had  actually  written  it.  But  the  two  great  apostles  of  the 
evolution  theory  were  Charles  Darwin  and  Herbert  Spencer. 
The  latter  began  his  great  work,  the  “First  Principles  of  Philos- 
ophy,” showing  the  application  of  evolution  in  the  facts  of  life, 
in  1852.  In  1859  appeared  Darwin’s  “Origin  of  Species.”  The 
hypothesis  of  the  latter  was  that  different  species  originated  in 
spontaneous  variation,  and  the  survival  of  the  fittest  through 
natural  selection  and  the  struggle  for  existence.  This  theory 
was  further  elaborated  and  applied  by  Spencer,  Darwin,  Huxley, 
and  other  writers  in  Europe  and  America,  and  though  to-day  by 
no  means  all  the  ideas  upheld  by  these  early  advocates  of  the 
theory  are  still  accepted,  evolution  as  a principle  is  now 
acknowledged  by  nearly,  all  scientists.  It  is  taken  to  be  an  estab- 
lished fact  in  nature,  a valid  induction  from  man’s  knowledge  of 
natural  order. 


The  Mind  Cure. 

The  mind  cure,  otherwise  known  in  its  various  subdivisions  as 
metaphysics,  Christian  science,  mental  science,  etc.,  is  a species  of 
delusion  quite  popular  at  the  present  time.  Every  era  of  the  world 
has  cherished  similar  delusions,  for  the  mass  of  the  human  race, 
even  in  what  are  considered  the  educated  classes,  are  so  unfa- 
miliar with  the  processes  of  exact  reasoning  that  they  fall  a 

426 


THE  MIND  CURE, 

ready  prey  to  quacks  of  all  kinds.  The  fundamental  idea  of  the 
mind  cure  system  is  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  sickness.  Dis- 
ease, says  one  of  their  apostles,  is  an  error  of  the  mind,  the  result 
of  fear.  Fear  is  only  faith  inverted  and  perverted.  God,  who  is 
all  good  Himself,  and  who  made  everything  good,  cannot  have 
been  the  author  of  any  disease.  As  disease,  therefore,  is  not  a 
creation,  it  has  no  existence,  and  when  the  healer  has  succeeded 
in  impressing  this  fact  upon  the  mind  of  the  patient,  the  cure  is 
effected.  It  is  curious  to  note  into  what  utter  absurdities  the 
need  for  consistency  carries  these  apostles.  Poisons,  they  say, 
would  be  quite  harmless  if  the  fear  of  them  was  removed,  but  we 
have  yet  to  find  the  “mental  science”  teacher  who  will  under- 
take to  prove  this  bj'  herself  taking  liberal  doses  of  aconite  and 
stryehnine.  The  illnesses  of  children  are  explained  by  the  hy- 
pothesis of  hereditary  fear.  The  majority  of  the  teachers  of  this 
new  faith  are  women,  many  of  whom,  no  doubt,  are  sincere  in 
their  belief;  but  it  may  be  safely  stated  that  the  men  engaged  as  the 
so-called  physicians  of  the  new  practice  are,  with  few  exceptions, 
unprincipled  quacks,  who  have  gone  into  the  business  for  the 
money  they  can  make  by  duping  the  ignorant.  As  far  as  there 
is  any  truth  underlying  the  vagaries  of  mind  cures,  and  their 
boasts  of  remarkable  cases  of  healing,  it  may  be  admitted  that 
the  mind  has  much  influence  over  the  body.  This  fact  has  been 
recognized  by  intelligent  physicians  for  centuries.  And  that,  the 
peculiar  modern  type  of  nervous  diseases,  which  are  so  largely 
caused  by  excessive  stimulus  of  the  nerves  and  the  imagination, 
should  be  amenable  to  cure  through  the  imagination,  is  not 
strange.  It  will  be  noted  that  this  mental  cure  has  effected  its 
miracles  mainly  among  women,  where  it  has  the  emotional  tem- 
perament to  work  on,  and  almost  wholly  in  the  ranks  of  the 
wealthy  and  well-to-do,  where  there  is  little  or  no  impoverish- 
ment of  the  system  by  insufficient  food  and  excessive  toil  to  hin- 
der its  effects.  We  have  not  heard,  nor  are  we  likely  to  hear,  of 
an  epidemic  disease  checked  by  the  mind  cure,  or  of  the  healing 
of  acute  affections  or  organic  troubles  through  its  agency.  Nor 
do  we  hear  of  its  seeking  to  carry  its  message  of  healing  into  the 
houses  of  the  suffering  poor  in  large  cities,  where  hunger,  expos- 
ure and  foul  airs  open  wide  the  door  to  fevers  and  all  deadly 
diseases,  nor  yet  into  hospitals  for  contagious  or  incurable  affec- 
tions. In  the  presence  of  such  realities  it  would  prove,  as  its 
votaries  probably  understand,  a too-painful  mockery.  Intelli- 
gently analyzed,  therefore,  this  new  revelation  amounts  to  noth- 
ing more  than  a quite  striking  proof  of  the  remarkable  influence 
of  the  mind  over  the  nervous  system.  Beyond  this,  the  craze,  in 
attempting  to  disprove  the  existence  of  disease,  and  to  show  that 
poisons  do  not  kill,  is  simply  running  against  the  plain  and  inevi' 
table  facts  of  life,  and  can  safely  be  left  to  perish  through  its* 
own  rashness.  427 


GEMS  OF  POETRY. 


There  is  a tide  in  the  affairs  of  men 

Which,  taken  at  the  flood,  leads  on  to  fortune; 

Omitted,  all  the  voyage  of  their  life 

Is  bound  in  shallows  and  in  miseries. — Shakespeare. 

Therefore,  since  brevity  is  the  soul  of  wit. 

And  tediousness  the  limbs  and  outward  flourishes — 

I will  be  brief.  — Shakespeare. 

The  quality  of  mercy  is  not  strain’d; 

It  droppeth,  as  the  gentle  rain  from  heaven. 

Upon  the  place  beneath. — Shakespeare. 

What  are  monuments  of  bravery 
Where  no  public  virtues  bloom? 

What  avail,  in  lands  of  slavery, 

Trophied  temples,  arch  and  tomb? — Campbell. 

Virtue  alone  outbuilds  the  pyramids;  Not  to  him  who  rashly  dares. 

Her  monuments  shall  last  when  Egypt’s  But  to  him  who  nobly  bears, 

fall. — Young.  Is  the  victor’s  garland  sure.  — Whittier. 

A trinity  there  seems  of  principles. 

Which  represent  and  rule  created  life — 

The  love  of  self,  our  fellows,  and  our  God. — Bailey. 

Hark,  his  hands  the  lyre  explore ! 

Bright-eyed  Fancy,  hovering  o’er. 

Scatters  from  her  pictur’d  urn 

Thoughts  that  breathe  and  words  that  burn. — Gray. 

I hold  it  truth  with  him  who  sings 
To  one  clear  harp  in  divers  tones. 

That  men  may  rise  on  stepping-stones 
Of  their  dead  selves  to  higher  things. — Tennyson. 

Think’ St  thou  existence  doth  depend  on  time  ? 

It  doth;  but  actions  are  our  epochs. — Byron. 

Man  but  dives  in  death; 

Dives  from  the  sun  in  fairer  day  to  rise. 

The  grave  his  subterranean  road  to  bliss. — Young. 

There  Is  no  death!  What  seems  so  is  transition  ; 

This  life  of  mortal  breath 
Is  but  a suburb  of  the  life  Elysian, 

Whose  portal  we  call  death. — Longfellow. 

Know,  then,  thyself;  presume  not  God  to  scan; 

The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man. — Pope. 

Lowliness  is  young  ambition’s  ladder. 

Whereto  the  climber  upward  turns  his  face; 

But  when  he  once  attains  the  utmost  round. 

He  then  unto  the  ladder  turns  his  back. 

Looks  in  the  clouds,  scorning  the  base  degrees 
By  which  he  did  ascend. — Shakespeare. 

Condition,  circumstance,  is  not  the  thing; 

Bliss  is  the  same  in  subject  or  in  king. — Pope. 

m 


GEMS  OF  POETRT. 


Men  who  their  duties  know,  Oh,  fear  not  in  a world  like  this. 

But  know  their  rights,  and,  knowing.  And  thou  shalt  know  ere  long. 

Dare  maintain. — Jones.  Know  how  sublime  a thing  it  is 

To  suffer  and  be  strong. — Longfellow. 

The  Arve  and  Arveiron  at  thy  base 

Rave  ceaselessly;  but  thou,  most  awful  Form  ! ^ 

Risestfrom  forth  thy  silent  sea  of  pines. 

How  silently!  Around  thee  and  above 
Deep  is  the  air,  and  dark,  substantial  black. 

An  ebon  mass;  methinksthou  piercest  it 
As  with  a wedge. — Coleridge  (On  Mt.  Blanc). 

Let  fate  do  her  worst,  there  are  moments  of  joy. 

Bright  dreams  of  the  past,  which  she  cannot  destroy; 

Which  come  in  the  night  time  of  sorrow  and  care. 

And  bring  back  the  features  that  joy  used  to  wear. — Moore. 

Delightful  task  I to  rear  the  tender  thought. 

To  teach  the  young  idea  how  to  shoot. 

To  pour  the  fresh  instruction  o’er  the  mind. 

To  breathe  th’  enliv’ning  spirit,  and  to  fix 

The  generous  purpose  in  the  glowing  breast. — Thomson. 

Every  inordinate  cup 

Is  unblessed,  and  the  ingredient  is  a devil — Shakespeare. 

And  I will  trust  that  He  who  heeds 

The  life  that  hides  in  mead  and  wold. 

Who  hangs  yon  alder’s  crimson  beads. 

And  stains  these  mosses  green  and  gold. 

Will  still,  as  HE  hath  done,  incline 

His  gracious  care  to  me  and  mine. — Whittier. 

Yet  I doubt  not  through  the  ages 
One  increasing  purpose  runs. 

And  the  thoughts  of  men  are  widened 

With  the  process  of  the  suns. — Tennyson. 

Oh,  that  men  should  put  an  enemy  in 

Their  mouths  to  steal  away  their  brains  ! — Shakespeare. 

’Tis  strange,  but  true,  for  truth  is  always  strange. 

Stranger  than  fiction. — Byron. 

Still  to  ourselves  in  every  place  consigned. 

Our  own  felicity  we  make  or  find. — Goldsmith. 

Shall  man  alone,  for  whom  all  else  revives. 

No  resurrection  know? — Young. 

To  gild  refined  gold,  to  paint  the  lily. 

To  throw  a perfume  on  the  violet, 

To  smooth  the  ice  or  add  another  hue 
Unto  the  rainbow,  or  with  taper  light 
To  seek  the  beauteous  eye  of  heaven  to  garnish. 

Is  wasteful  and  ridiculous  excess. — Shakespeare^ 

The  purest  treasure  mortal  times  afford 
Is  spotless  reputation;  that  away. 

Men  are  but  gilded  loam  or  painted  clay. — Shakespeare. 

429 


GEMS  OF  POBTRT. 


Our  little  lives  are  kept  in  equipoise 
By  opposite  attractions  and  desires; 

The  struggle  of  the  instinct  that  enjoys. 

And  the  more  noble  instinct  that  aspires. — Longfellow, 

Oh  ! many  a shaft  at  random  sent 
Finds  mark  the  arclier  little  meant, 

And  many  a word  at  random  spoken 

May  soothe  or  wound  a heart  that’s  broken. — Scott. 

A weapon  that  comes  down  as  still 
As  snowflakes  fall  upon  the  sod, 

But  executes  a freeman’s  will 

As  lightning  does  the  will  of  God; 

And  from  its  force  nor  doors  nor  locks 

Can  shield  you;  ’tis  the  ballot-box. — Pierpont. 

Happy  the  man  who  sees  a God  employed 
In  all  the  good  and  ill  that  checker  life  ! — Cowper. 

’Tis  greatly  wise  to  talk  with  our  past  hours. 

And  ask  them  what  report  they  bore  to  heaven.  — Young, 

Kind  hearts  are  more  than  coronets. 

And  simple  faith  than  Norman  blood. — Tennyson, 

’Tis  distance  lends  enchantment  to  the  view, 

And  clothes  the  mountain  in  its  azure  hue. — Campbell. 

Good  name,  in  man  and  woman,  dear  my  lord. 

Is  the  immediatejewel  of  their  souls. — Shakespeare. 

Who,  then,  to  frail  mortality  shall  trust, 

But  limns  the  water,  or  but  writes  in  dust. — Lord  Bacon. 

My  mind  to  me  a kingdom  is  ; 

Such  present  joys  therein  I find 
That  it  excels  all  other  bliss 

That  earth  affords  or  grows  by  kind  ; 

Though  much  I want  which  most  would  have, 

Yet  still  my  mind  forbids  to  crave. — Dyer. 

But  words  are  things,  and  a small  drop  of  ink. 

Falling,  like  dew,  upon  a thought,  produces 

That  which  makes  thousands,  perhaps  millions,  think. 

— Byron, 


His  golden  locks  hath  Time  to  silver  turned, 

O time  too  swift ! O swiftness  never  ceasing  ! 

His  youth  ’gainst  time  and  age  hath  ever  spurned. 

But  spurned  in  vain;  youth  waneth  by  increasing. 

Beauty,  strength,  youth,  are  flowers  but  fading  seen. 

Duty,  faith,  love,  are  roots,  and  ever  green. — Lord  Bacon. 

Ill  fares  the  land,  to  hastening  ills  a prey. 

When  wealth  accumulates  and  men  decay; 

Princes  and  lords  may  flourish  and  may  fade, 

A breath  can  make  them  as  a breath  has  made. 

But  an  honest  peasantry,  a country’s  pride. 

When  once  destroyed,  can  never  be  supplied. — Goldsmith. 

430 


GEMS  OF  POETRY. 


An  honest  man’s  the  noblest  work  of  God. — Pope. 

’Tis  heaven  alone  that  is  given  away; 

’Tis  only  God  may  be  had  for  the  asking. — Lowell. 

There  is  no  death!  An  angel  form 

Walks  o’er  the  earth  with  silent  tread; 

He  bears  our  best  lov’d  things  away. 

And  then  we  call  them  “dead.”— 

First,  then,  a woman  will  or  won’t,  depend  on ’t: 

If  she  will  do’t,  she  will;  and  there’s  an  end  on ’t. 

But  if  she  won’t,  since  safe  and  sound  your  trust  is. 
Fear  is  affront,  and  jealousy  injustice. — Hill. 

What  stronger  breastplate  than  a heart  untainted  ? 

'J'hnce  is  he  arm’d  that  hath  his  quarrel  just; 

And  he  but  naked,  though  lock’d  up  in  steel, 

Whose  conscience  with  injustice  is  corrupted. — Shakespeare. 

So  dear  to  heaven  is  saintly  chastity 
That,  when  a soul  is  found  sincerely  so, 

A thousand  liveried  angels  lackey  her. 

Driving  far  off  each  thing  of  sin  and  guilt. — Milton. 

Who  has  not  felt  how  sadly  sweet 

The  dream  o.  home,  the  dream  of  home. 

Steals  o’er  the  heart,  too  soon  to  fleet. 

When  far  o’er  sea  or  land  we  roam  ^.—Moore. 

No  peace  nor  ease  the  heart  can  know 
Which,  like  the  needle  true. 

Turns  at  the  touch  of  joy  or  woe, 

But,  turning,  trembles  too. — Mrs.  Greville. 

Truth  crushed  to  earth  shall  rise  again; 

The  eternal  years  of  God  are  hers; 

But  Error,  wounded,  writhes  with  pain. 

And  dies  among  his  worshipers. — Byron. 

Rest  here,  distrest  by  poverty  no  more  ; 

Here  find  that  calm  thou  gav’st  so  oft  before  ; 

Sleep,  undisturb’d,  within  this  peacelul  shrine, 

’Till  angels  wake  thee  with  a note  like  thine. — Johnson, 

Care  to  our  coffin  adds  a nail,  no  doubt. 

And  every  grin  so  merry  draws  one  out. — Wolcot. 

Shall  I,  wasting  in  despair, 

Die  because  a woman’s  fair? 

Or  make  pale  my  cheeks  with  care 
’Cause  another’s  rosy  are  ? 

Be  she  fairer  than  the  day, 

Or  the  flow’ry  meads  in  May, 

If  she  be  not  so  to  me, 

What  care  I how  fair  she  be  ? — Wither. 

The  world’s  a bubble,  and  the  life  of  man. 

Less  than  a span. — Bacon. 

Great  wit  is  sure  to  madness  close  allied, 

And  thin  partitions  do  their  bounds  divide  — Dryden. 

431 


GEMS  OF  POE  TFT. 

What  a piece  of  work  is  man ! How  noble  in  reason  ! how  infinit'e  in  faculties  ! in 
form  and  moving,  how  express  and  admirable  ! in  action,  how  like  an  angel ! in  ap- 
prehension, how  like  a god  ! — Shakespeare. 

She  walks  in  beauty,  like  the  night 
Of  cloudless  climes  and  starry  skies  ; 

And  all  that’s  best  of  dark  and  bright 
Meet  in  her  aspect  and  her  eyes  ; 

Thus  mellow’d  to  that  tender  light 

Which  Heaven  to  gaudy  day  denies. — Byron. 

If  thou  faint  in  the  day  of  adversity,  thy  strength  is  small. — Old  Testament. 

In  Faith  and  Hope  the  world  will  disagree, 

But  all  mankind’s  concern  is  Charity. — Pope. 

Sweet  are  the  uses  of  adversity. 

Which,  like  the  toad,  ugly  and  venomous, 

Wears  yet  a precious  jewel  in  his  head  ; 

And  thus  our  life,  exempt  from  public  haunt, 

Finds  tongues  in  trees,  books  in  the  running  brooks. 

Sermons  in  stones,  and  good  in  everything. — Shakespeare. 

Should  auld  acquaintance  be  forgot. 

And  never  brought  to  min’  ? 

Should  auld  acquaintance  be  forgot. 

And  days  o’  auld  lang  syne? — Burns. 

Statesman,  yet  friend  to  truth  ! Of  soul  sincere. 

In  action  faithful  and  in  honor  clear  ; 

Who  broke  no  promise,  serv’d  no  private  end  ; 

Who  gained  no  title,  and  who  lost  no  friend.— 

O woman,  lovely  woman  ! nature  made  thee 
To  temper  man  ; we  had  been  brutes  without  you. 

Angels  are  painted  fair,  to  look  like  you  ; 

There’s  in  you  all  that  we  believe  in  heaven  : 

Amazing  brightness,  purity  and  truth. 

Eternal  joy  and  everlasting  love. — Otivay, 


MISQUOTATIONS. 

It  is  a peculiar  faculty  of  human  memory  to  misquote  proverbs 

and  poetry,  and  almost  invariably  to  place  the  credit  where  it  does  not  belong. 

Nine  men  out  of  ten  think  that  "The  Lord  tempers  the  wind  to  the  shorn  lamb”  is 
from  the  Bible,  whereas  Lawrence  Sterne  is  the  author.  "Pouring  oil  upon  the 
troubled  waters”  is  also  ascribed  to  the  sacred  volume,  whereas  it  is  not  there  ; in 
fact,  no  one  knows  its  origin. 

Again,  we  hear  people  say  : "The  proof  of  the  pudding  is  in  chewing  the  string.” 
Ihis  is  arrant  nonsense,  as  the  proverb  says : 

"The  proof  of  the  pudding  is  in  the  eating  thereof,  and  not  in  chewing  the  string.” 

Nothing  is  more  common  than  to  hear  : 

A man  convinced  against  his  will 
Is  of  the  same  opinion  still. 

This  is  an  impossible  condition  of  the  mind,  for  no  one  can  be  convinced  of  an 
opinion  and  at  the  same  time  hold  an  opposite  one.  What  Butler  wrote  was  emi- 
nently sensible : 

He  that  complies  against  his  will 
Is  of  his  own  opinion  still. 

432 


POSTAL  INFORMATION. 


A famous  passage  of  Scripture  is  often  misquoted  thus:  “He  that  is  without  sin 
among  you.  let  him  cast  the  first  stone.”  It  should  be  : “Let  him  first  cast  a stone. 

Sometimes  we  are  told:  “Behold  how  great  a fire  a little  matter  kindleth,” 
whereas  St.  James  said:  “Behold  how  great  a matter  a little  fire  kindleth,”  which 
is  quite  a different  thing. 

We  also  hear  that  a “miss  is  as  good  as  a mile,”  which  is  not  as  sensible  or  forcible 
as  the  true  proverb:  “A  miss  of  an  inch  is  as  good  as  a mile.” 

“Look  before  you  leap”  should  be  : “And  look  before  you  ere  you  leap.” 

Pope  is  generally  credited  with  having  written  : 

Immodest  words  admit  of  no  defense, 

For  want  of  decency  is  want  of  sense, 

though  it  would  puzzle  any  one  to  find  the  verses  in  his  writings.  They  were  wrib 
ten  by  the  Earl  of  Roscommon,  who  died  before  Pope  was  born. 

Franklin  said:  “Honesty  is  the  best  of  policy,”  but  the  maxim  is  of  Spanish  ori* 
gin,  and  may  be  found  in  “Don  Quixote.” 


POSTAL  INFORMATION. 

Local,  or  Drop  Letters,  2 cents  for  each  half  ounce  at  all 

letter  carrier  offices,  and  at  other  offices  t cent. 

Letters  to  any  part  of  the  United  States  ©r  the  Dominion  oi 

Canada,  2 cents  for  each  ounce  or  fraction  thereof. 

Letters  to  Great  Britain  or  Ireland,  or  the  Continent  of 

Europe,  5 cents  for  each  half  ounce. 

Valuable  Letters  may  be  registered  by  paying  a charge 

of  10  cents. 

Postal  Cards  costing  one  cent  each  can  be  sent  to  any  part 
of  the  United  States  or  Canada.  They  may  be  sent  to  Newfoundland,  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland  by  adding  a i cent  stamp. 

Printed  Matter:  r.  Printed  Books,  Periodicals,  Transcient 

Newspapers  and  other  matter  wholly  in  print,  in  unsealed  envelopes,  i cent  for 
each  two  ounces  or  fraction  thereof. 

2.  Printed  circulars  may  bear  the  date,  address  and  signature 

at  tlfis  rate. 

3.  Reproductions  by  electric  pen,  Hekograph,  and  similar  pro- 

cesses, same  as  Printed  Matter. 

Articles  of  Merchandise,  Seeds,  Cuttings,  RootSi 

ap'^  other  mailable  matter,  i cent  for  each  ounce  or  fraction  thereof. 

All  Packages  of  mail  matter  not  charged  with  letter  post- 
age must  be  arranged  so  the  same  can  be  conveniently  examined  by  postmas- 
ters. If  not  so  arranged,  letter  postage  will  be  charged. 

Articles  of  Merchandise  may  be  registered  at  the  rate  of 

10  cents  a package,  subject  to  proper  examination  before  registration.  The  name 
and  the  address  of  sender  must  be  indorsed  in  writing,  or  in  print,  on  each  package 
offered  for  registration. 

Any  Package  may  have  the  name  and  address  of  the  sender, 

with  the  word  “from”  prefixed  on  the  wrapper,  and  the  number  and  names  of  the 
articles' may  be  added  in  brief  form. 

Postal  Note,  payable  to  bearer  at  any  money  order  office 

designed  by  the  purchaser  of  the  note,  must  be  for  an  amount  under  five  dollars, 
and  will  cost  three  cents. 

Money  Orders  : The  fee  for  a money  order  not  exceeding 

$10  is  8 cents;  $10  to  $15,  10  cents;  $15  to  $30,  15  cents;  $30  to  $40,  20  cents;  $40  to 
$50,  25  cents;  $50  to  $60,  30  cents;  $60  to  I70,  35  cents;  $70  to  |8o  dollars,  40  cents; 
$80  to  $100,  45  cents. 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX 


See  also  list  of  Maps^  Charts  a7ul  Diagra^ns^  in  Summary 
of  Contents. 


Abolition  movement,  the 160 

Abstracts  of  title 246 

Accidents  and  emergencies 326 

Accidents  on  railroads,  chances  of.  .303 

Acknowledgment,  certificate  of 261 

Adams,  John,  administration  of 152 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  administration 
of.;.; 156 

Administrators,  duties  of 253 

Advertisers,  hints  to 299 

Afghanistan gg 

Africa ;Jq2 

Agency  and  attorney 240 

Age  of  the  earth ^28 

Agreement,  general  form  of. ...... .260 

Agreements  and  contracts 233 

Agricultural  or  mineral  lands 268 

Air,  dangers  of  foul 3()y 

Alabama,  map  of *75 

Alaska,  map  of. *74 

Alcohol,  degrees  of,  in  wines,  etc.  ..230 

Alcoholic  poisoning 329 

Alexander  the  Great 357 

AlexandrianLibrary,  the H 

Alloys,  table  of 392 

“Almighty  Dollar,”  origin  of. 9 

Amendments  to  the  Constitution. . . .£74 

America,  discovery  of 4I 

America  (history  of) 203 

American  party,  the 165 

Amsterdam 13 

Annuity  policies .296 

Antidotes  for  poisons 329,  345 

Anti-Federalist  party,  the 152 

Anti-Masonic  party,  the ,160 

Ants 352 

Ants,  to  destroy 339 

Apoplexy 312,  329 

Apostles,  fate  of  the 34.3 

Apothecaries*  weight.  348 

Arabia 84 

Arbitration,  the  laws  of. 251 

Architects,  handy  facts  for 385 

Arch,  largest 15 

Arctic  exploration 183 

Area  of  principal  countries 68 

Area  of  States — See  maps. 

Areas  of  circles 383 

Argentine  Republic 124 

Arizona,  map  of 78 

Arkansas,  map  of 79 

Army,  proportions  of. 178 

Army,  salaries  of  officers 146 

Aromatic  spirits  of  vinegar 334 

Arrest,  exemption  from 284 


Arrests  without  warrant 

Arson 

Arthur’s  administration 

Artificial  feeding  of  infants. . . 

Asia 

Assault  and  battery 

Assignment,  form  of 

Assignment  of  copyright 

Assignment  of  patents 

Assignments 

Assyria  (history  of) 

Asthma 

Attorney,  form  of  power  of. . . 

Australia 

Australian  ballot  system,  the . 

Austro-Hungary 

Authors  and  royalties 

Avoirdupois  weights 

Babylonia  (history  of) 

Balloon,  first  ascension 

Baluchistan 

Bank  controversy,  the 

Bankers*  time  table 

Banking  capital 

Bank  notes,  portraits  on 

Bankruptcy 

Bankrupt,  origin  of  term 

Barbed  wire  for  fences 

Bar  bell,  the 

Bar  iron,  flat,  weight  of 

Barnabas,  St 

“Barnburners,**  the 

Barrels,  how  to  measure 

Barrenness 

Bartholdi’s  statue  of  Liberty. . 

Bartholomew,  St 

Battles,  number  killed  in 

Battles  of  history,  the  decisive 

Bay  rum 

Bed  bugs 

Belgium 

Befl-metal 

Bells,  largest 

Belting,  horse  power  of 

Belting,  table  of 

Bible,  facts  about  the 

Bibles  of  the  world,  the  seven, 

Bigamy 

Big  trees 

Bile 

Bilious  cholera 

Bilious  complaints 

Bill  of  exchange,  form  of. 

Bill  of  sale,  form  of 

Bills  of  sale 


436 


284 

....  284 

168 

324 

84 

284 

26i) 

....269 

272 

248 

193 

3.20 

261 

93 

279 

.....  77 

225 

348 

193 

9 

88 

160 

302 

225 

148 

292 

401 

353 

309 

381 

343 

....••164 

350 

225 

16 

343 

178 

178 

335 

340 

73 

225 

..11,  225 

387 

....  387 
ir  , 231 

346 

284 

301 

312 

321 

312,  320 

260 

.260,263 
250 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


Birds,  flight  of. 225 

Birds,  life  of 14 

Birmingham  wire  gauges 382 

Birthdays 400 

Blackboards,  how  to  make 414 

Bladder,  inflammation  of  the 313 

Bleeding  from  the  nose 327 

Blindness 231 

Board  and  plank  measurement  table. 355 
Boarding-houses,  inns,  etc.,  the  law 

of 249 

Body  in  flames 326 

Bokhara 88 

Boiler  chimneys 392 

Boilers,  etc 386 

Boilers,  size  and  capacity  of 391 

Boiling,  fusing  and  freezing  points. . .307 

Bolivia 121 

Bonds  and  guaranty 250 

Bonds  and  stocks 200 

Bond,  common  form  of. 260 

Bond  for  a deed,  form  of. 261 

Books,  invention  of 12 

Book  work  measurement 403 

Boots  and  shoes,  to  make  waterproof.338 

Boots,  cement  for  rubber 423 

Boston  fire 192 

Bovines  vs.  equines 288 

Bowels,  inflammation  of  the 313 

Bowels,  looseness  of  the 314 

Br^in,  compression  of  the. .' 328 

Brain,  inflammation  of  the 313 

Brain,  measurement  of  the 230 

Brain,  water  on  the 315 

Brassware,  to  clean 339 

Brazil 124 

Breath,  bad 333 

Brick  chimneys 39 j[ 

Bricklayers  and  plasterers,  facts  for. 302 

Bricks  and  pottery,  color  of. 351 

Bricks,  number  in  a building 303 

Brick  required  to  construct  any  build- 
ing   361 

Bridges 10 

Bridges,  railroad 303 

British  America  (history  of) 204 

British  Columbia 109 

British  Isles,  the 69 

British  New  Guinea 100 

British  North  America 108 

Brokerage  and  commission 291 

Bronchitis 320 

Brooklyn  theater  fire 192 

Brooms,  to  preserve 339 

Brown,  J ohn 165 

Bruises  and  wounds 320 

Buchanan’s  administration 165 

Buddhism 425 

Bug  poison 340 

Building,  highest 18 

Building  materials,  wear  and  tear  of.  374 


Builders’  estimating  tables 364 

Builders,  handy  facts  for 361,  385 

Buildings,  height  of 184 

Buildings,  pqblic,  capacity  of. 229 

Burglary 284 

Burma 89 

Burns  and  scalds 326 

Burr’s  expedition 153 

Bushel,  legal  weight  of. 352 

Business  and  legal  forms 260 

Business  law  in  brief. 232 

Business  letters 42 

Cable,  first  Atlantic H 

Calhoun 157 

California,  map  of 82 

Camel,  facts  about  the 226 

Canary  birds,  the  care  of 347 

Candle-power 280 

Cape  Colony 101 

Capital  employed  in  banking 225 

Capitals  of  principal  countries 68 

Capitals,  State  and  Territorial 145 

Capitals,  the  use  of 42 

Capitol  building,  Washington 17 

Carbon  in  food 331 

Car,  capacity  of  freight 306 

Carpenters’  work  and  measuring. . . .371 

Carpets,  kerosene  stains  in 338 

Carpets,  to  brighten 338 

Carrier-pigeons 226 

Casks,  how  to  measure 350 

Cast  iron  and  timber,  strength  of...  .364 
Cast  iron,  approximate  weight  of. . . .380 
Cast  iron,  assumed  weight  in  esti- 
mating  379 

Cast  iron  balls,  weight  of,  etc 379 

Cast  iron  columns,  weight  of 378 

Cast  iron,  round,  weight  of. 379 

Catacombs 14 

Catarrh 32O 

Cathedrals,  height  of  184 

Cattle  and  horses,  difference  be- 
tween  288 

Cattle,  shipments  of 14 

Cattle,  to  tell  age  of .344 

Cattle,  weight  of. 350 

Caveats 272 

Cavern,  largest 12 

Cellar,  to  disinfect  a 337 

Cement 303 

Cement  and  lime,  weight  of 376 

Cement  for  rubber  boots 423 

Cement,  how  to  use 365 

Cement,  tin  box 335 

Census,  U.  S 141 

Centigrade  thermometer 306 

Central  Africa .101 

Central  America 117 

Central  America,  map  of. 163 

Certificate  of  acknowledgment 261 

Certificates,  stock .289 


437 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX, 


Chairs  and  desks  for  schools,  sizes  of.  375 

Chaldea  (history  of) 193 

. Chance,  the  laws  of 294 

Change,  how  to  make  ..  300 

Change,  terms  used  on -292 

Charleston,  great  fire  at 192 

Chattel  mortgages 247 

Checks  paid  in  N.  Y.  and  London.  .226 

Cheops,  pyramid  of 227 

Chest  weights... 309 

Chicago  fire 192 

Chicago,  wonderful  growth  of. 133 

Chicken-pox 312,  325 

Chilblains 312,  320 

Chili 124 

Chimneys,  boiler 392 

Chimneys,  brick. 391 

China 89 

Chinese  wall 11 

Choking 325,  328 

Cholera 321 

Cholera,  Asiatic 321 

Cholera,  English . .314 

Cholera,  bilious 321 

Cholera  epidemics 231 

Cholera  mixture 324 

Christian  names  of  men 420 

Christian  names  of  women 421 

Christians,  number  of 1.5 

Church,  largest.  17 

Cipher  marks,  private 300 

Circle,  the  area  of  a 382 

Circles,  table  of  areas  of 383 

Circles,  table  of  circumferences  of.  .384 

Circular  arc,  length  of 400 

Circumference  of  earth — how  meas- 
ured   64 

Circumferences  of  circles. 384 

Cistern  measure 350 

Cisterns,  capacity  of 390 

Cities,  nicknames  of 140 

Cities  of  the  U.  S.,  table  of 129 

City,  oldest  in  U.  S • 12 

Cities,  the  world’s  largest 128 

Civil  service,  the 281 

Civil  war  of  1861-1865 ...  .171 

Civil  war,  naval  battles  of  the 175 

Civil  war,  principal  battles  of  the...  173 

Claims,  mining 267 

Clay  compromise,  the 164 

Clay,  Henry 157 

Cleveland’s  administration 168 

Climates  of  the  U.  S 412 

Coal,  curious  by-products  from 274 

Coal  in  the  U.  S 189 

Coal  used  as  fuel. 13 

Cockroaches,  to  kill 339 

Codicils 252 

Coin,  weight  of 14 

Cold  in  the  head 320 

Cold,  severest  on  record,  .183 


Colic... 821 

Collection  of  debts 299 

Cologne  water 334 

Colombia 120 

Colonies,  the  American  (history  of).  .203 

Colorado,  map  of 83 

Colors,  combinations  of.  392 

Colors,  symbolic  meaning  of 148 

Columns,  cast  iron,  weight  of 378 

Commission 291 

Common  fever 312 

Compound  interest 300 

Compression  of  the  brain 328 

Concussion 328 

Confederacy,  Southern,  formation 

166 

Confederate  States  (hist,  chart) 207 

Conflagrations,  great 192 

Congress 273 

Connecticut,  map  of. 86 

Congo  Free  State 104 

Constipation 312,  321 

Constitutional  Union  party,  the 165 

Constitutional  law 273 

Constitution,  amendments  to  the. . . .274 

Constitutions  (State),  adoption  of 152 

Constitution  (U.  S.),  adoption  of 152 

Consumption 312 

Consumption,  death  from 229 

Contagious  diseases 325 

Continental  Congress .149 

Contusions *27 

Convulsions 312,  321 

Contracts  and  agreements 233 

Cooking,  loss  of  meat  in 331 

Copernicus,  system  of 63 

“Copperheads” 166 

Copyright,  the  law  of 269 

Cork,  to  remove  a broken 3^ 

Corliss  engine,  the 18 

Corn,  how  to  measure 350,  353 

Corns 334 

Corporations 251 

Cost  and  price  marks 300 

Cotton,  first  raised  in  U.  S 11 

Cotton  spinning 9 

Cough,  common 312,  321 

Cough,  whooping 323,  325 

Counterfeit  money,  howto  detect. . .301 

Cracks  in  plaster,  to  fill 338 

Cremation 226 

Criminal  law,  points  of. 284 

Crittenden  compromise,  the 166 

Cross  ledges  (mining  laws) 268 

Cross  ties  per  mile 360 

Croup 312,  321 

Crushing  strength  of  stones,  etc 377 

Cubes  and  squares,  tables  of 396 

Custom-house,  largest. 19 

Customs  duties,  list  ®f 285 

Cuts  and  wounds -327 


438 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX, 


Cylinder,  to  find  capacity  of  a 389 

Cylindrical  cisterns  or  tanks,  capaci- 
ty of  .390 

Cyprus 80 

Daguerreotype  process,  invention  of  12 

Dakota,  map  of 87 

Dandruff 334 

Dark  Ages 10 

Davis,  Jefferson 166 

Days  of  the  week 409 

Deaf  and  dumb  asylum,  largest 13 

Debts,  how  to  collect 299 

Decimal  approximations 380 

Decimal  equivalents  of  fractions. . . .385 

Deed,  form  of  quit-claim 261 

Deed,  form  of  warranty 261 

Deeds 245 

Delaware,  map  of 90 

Democratic  party,  the 157 

Democratic-Republican  party,  the..  152 

Demonetization  of  silver 424 

Denmark 77 

Depilatory,  a safe 333 

Desert,  the  largest 13 

Desks  for  schools,  sizes  of,  etc 375 

Diamonds,  largest 13,  226 

Diarrhoea 321 

Diet  in  homoeopathy 324 

Digestion  of  various  foods 332 

Dirt  in  the  eye 326 

Discounts,  trade 30 1 

Diseases 312 

Diseases,  contagious 325 

Disinfectants 387 

Dislocated  thumb .327 

Distances  from  New  York 259 

Dividends 289 

Divorce,  State  laws  governing 255 

Dollar,  the  standard  silver 424 

Domestic  and  drop  measures 349 

Doses  for  the  horse 345 

Doses  of  medicine , 330 

Doses  in  homoeopathy .323 

Doses,  safe,  of  poisonous  drugs .331 

Doses,  table  of  proportion,  etc 330 

Dower,  the  right  of 255 

Draft,  form  of 260 

Draft  at  sight,  form  of 264 

Drafts 232,  233,  236 

Drain-pipe,  capacity  of. 367 

Dred  Scott  decision,  the 165 

Dropsy 313 

Drowning 328 

Drugs,  poisonous 331 

Drunkenness,  apparent  death  from. 329 
Drunkenness  not  an  excuse  for  crime. 284 

Ducks,  geese  and  turkeys 341 

Due  bill,  form  of 264 

Dumb-bell  exercise .309 

Durability  of  woods 393 

Duties,  customs ,..,,..285 


Dwarfs,  famous 181 

Dysentery 321 

Dyspepsia 313,  322 

Earnings  of  U.  S 141 

Earth,  circumference  of,  how  meas- 
ured  64 

Earth,  estimated  age  of 128 

Earthquakes 408 

Earnings 339 

Eastern  Empire,  the 197 

Eastern  Equatorial  Africa 104 

Echo,  the  most  remarkable 13 

Ecuador 121 

Eddas,  the 346 

Education — See  various  countries. 

Eggs,  how  to  keep  fresh 337 

Egypt 105 

Egypt  (history  of).. 193,  195 

Egyptian  obelisks .410 

Eight-hour  movement,  the 188 

Elections,  State,  when  held 278 

Electoral  count  act,  the 277 

Electoral  College,  the 276 

Electrical  terms 419 

Electric  eel 11 

Electricity,  storage  of 418 

Electricity,  the  wonders  of 415 

Electric  light 9,  12,  416 

Electric  railway,  the 416 

Electric  signal,  first  transmitted 13 

Electric  telegraph,  first 10 

Electricity,  velocity  of. 12 

Electro-magnetism 1C 

Elevation  of  continents 226 

Emancipation,  proclamation  of.. 166 

Embezzelment 284 

Emergencies 326 

Empire,  largest 13 

Enamel  for  shirt  bosoms .339 

Endowment  policies 296 

Engine,  largest  stationary 14 

England  and  Wales 69 

England  (history  of) 198,  201 

English  cholera 314 

Engravings,  transferring 43 

Envelopes,  first  use  of 10 

Epilepsy 313 

Erasures  in  deeds 246 

Errors  in  speaking 31 

Eruptions  on  the  face 313 

Erysipelas 313,  3^ 

Estimates  of  materials 363 

Estimating  tables,  builders’ 364 

Ether,  first  used 10 

Europe 69 

Evaporation  of  water  from  fuel .226 

Evictions  in  Ireland 181 

Evolution,  the  theory  of 425 

Exchange,  form  of  bill  of 260 

Executors,  duties  of 253 

Exemption  from  arrest .284 


439 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX, 


Exemption  from  taxation. 

Exercise,  physical 

Expectation  of  life 

Express,  first 

Eye,  dirt  in  the. 


....298 
....309 
....296 
....  10 
••..326 

Eye,  iron  or  steel  spiculae  in  the 327 

Eye,  lime  in  the 326 

Eyes,  inflamed 314 

Factory  fires 192 

Facts  about  our  country 144 

Fahrenheit’s  thermometer. ; 306 

Fainting,  hysterics,  etc 313,  328 

Faintness 313 

Families  in  U.  S ;297 

Famines  of  history,  the  great 183 

Farm,  largest 15 

Farms  in  U.  S 297 

Farms,  law  relating  to,  etc 243 

Fasting 226 

Federalist  party,  the 152 

Federation  of  Labor 189 

Felony 284 

Fences,  barbed  wire  for 353 

Ferry-boat,  largest 18 

Fever,  common 312 

Fever,  intermittent 314 

Fever,  typhus 315,  325 

Fevers 322 

Fields  and  lots,  contents  of 353 

Fiji  Islands 100 

Fillmore’s  administration 164 

Financial  panics 182 

Finding,  the  law  of 258 

Fire  company,  first  volunteer 12 

Fire  insurance 295 

Fire  insurance,  first  office 9 

Fire-kindler,  economical 337 

Fire-proof  wood 423 

Fires  and  conflagrations 192 

Fishes,  curious  facts  about 354 

Fits... 329 

Five  kings,  the 346 

Flag  and  lantern  signals 304 

Flag,  the  American 13 

Flames,  body  in ..326 

Flatulency 322 

Flax,  production  of 226 

Flies,  to  destroy 340 

Floating  policies 295 

Floods  and  inundations 192 

Floor,  wall  and  roof  measure 363 

Floors,  weight  of  and  load  upon . . . .375 

Florida,  map  of 91 

Flowers,  language  of .413 

Flowers,  to  keep  fresh 339 

Food,  carbon  in 331 

Food,  digestion  of 332 

Food,  nutrition  in  various  articles of.332 

Food,  properties  of 332 

Food,  relative  value  of 331 

Food,  waste  of 141 


Food  for  stock 354 

Foreign  money,  value  of 347 

Forest  fires I92 

Fort  Sumter,  attack  on 166 

Foul  air,  dangers  of 307 

France 73 

France  (history  of) 198,  201 

Franco-German  war 226 

Freelist,  the  customs 287 

Free-Soil  Democrats 164 

Freezing  mixtures  without  ice 308 

Freight  car,  capacity  of. 306 

Freight,  comparative  cost  of  by  water 

and  rail 19 

French  colonies  in  Africa 104 

Frost  bite 313 

Frozen  limbs 313 

Fruits,  degrees  of  sugar  in 331 

Freezing,  fusing  and  boiling  points.. 307 

Fuel,  water  evaporation  of 226 

Furniture  polish 423 

Gallon,  weight  of  a 389 

Gases,  suffocation  from  noxious 329 

Gas,  facts  about 369 

Gas,  first  illumination  with 11 

Gas-pipe,  to  thaw  out 337 

Garfield,  Jas.  A.,  twentieth  presi- 
dent   168 

Gauges  and  their  equivalents 381 

Gauges,  wire 382 

Geese,  ducks  and  turkeys 343 

Gems,  language  of J 414 

Gems  of  poetry 428 

Gems  of  knowledge 9 

Generals  commanding  U.  S.  army.  .169 

General  warranty  deeds 246 

Geographical  nicknames 137 

Georgia,  map  of 94 

German  colonies  in  Africa 104 

German  Empire  re-established 10 

German  New  Guinea 100 

Germany 76 

Germany  (history  of) 198,  201,  202 

Ghent,  the  city  of 35I 

(jiants  and  dwarfs,  famous 

Gibraltar gQ 

Gilt  frames,  to  freshen qqo 

Glass. 370 

Glass,  first  transparent 19 

Glass,  panes  of,  in  a box 374 

Glass  stopper,  to  loosen 33g 

Glassware,  to  toughen 33g 

Glazing  and  painting 379 

Globe,  to  find  solidity  of 382 

Globe,  to  find  surface  of 382 

Goats,  to  tell  age  of 344 

Gold  first  discovered 9 

Gold  miners,  table  for 358 

Government  of  principal  countries. . 68 

Government  salaries 144 

Gout.... MS 


440 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


Grade  per  mile 354 

Grain  measure 350 

Grand  jury 274 

Grand  larceny 284 

Grant’s  administration... 167 

Graphophone,  the 416 

Gravel 313 

Gravity,  specific,  table  of 394 

Greece 80 

Greece  (history  of) 194 

Greeley  expedition,  the 128 

Greenback  party,  the,  167 

Grenades,  hand 191 

Guaranty,  the  law  of 250 

Guiana 120 

Gymnastic  exercises 309 

Hand  grenades 191 

Handy  facts  for  architects  and  build- 
ers..  385 

Handy  facts  to  settle  arguments. ...  9 

Hanging 328 

Hair  brushes,  cleaning 333 

Hair,  color  of 225 

Hair  invigorator 333 

Hair,  removing 333 

Hair,  tricopherous  for  the 333 

Harrison’s,  Benj.W.,  administration.  168 
Harrison,  W.  H.,  ninth  president. . .161 

Hartford  convention,  the 153 

Harvard  College 9 

Hawks,  flight  of 9 

Hayes’  administration 167 

Hay  in  mow,  how  to  measure 350 

Headache 322 

Health,  rules  for  preservation  of. . . .318 

Heartburn 322 

Heart,  palpitation  of  the 314 

Heat,  excessive,  in  the  past 182 

Heat,  summer,  in  various  countries.  182 

Hebrew  race,  the 308 

Hebrews,  history  of  the 193 

Heirship  to  property  not  bequeathed.  253 

Heligoland 80 

Hemorrhage 327 

Hiccough,  cure  for 324 

Hierarchy,  the  Roman  Catholic 228 

High  water 264 

Hints  to  advertisers 299 

History  (the  world’s)  at  a glance. . . .193 

Homestead  law 282 

Homoeopathic  remedies 319 

Homoeopathy 319 

Homoeopathy,  diet  in 324 

Homoeopathy,  doses  in 323 

Homoeopathy,  when  introduced 10 

Horizontal  bar  exercise 309 

Horns,  how  to  polish 414 

Horse,  endurance  of  the 172 

Horse,  medicines  for  the, 345 

Horse,  how  to  tell  age  of. 344 

Horse-power 227 


Horse-power  necessary  to  elevate 

water 389 

Horse-power  of  belting 387 

Horse-power  of  steam  engines,  etc.  .386 

Horse  railroad,  first  built 12 

Horses  and  cattle,  differences  be- 
tween  288 

Horseshoes,  first  made 10 

Horse,  what  a,  can  draw 347 

Hotel,  largest 19 

Hotels,  the  law  of .249 

How  to  detect  counterfeit  money. . .301 

Human  life,  average 12 

Hurricane,  velocity  of 12 

Hydraulic  information,  useful 389 

Hygiene-. 312 

Hysterics 313,  328 

Iceland 80 

Icelandic  discovery  of  America 203 

Ice,  strength  of 227 

Idaho,  map  of 95 

Illegitimate  births 227 

Illinois,  map  of 98 

Illiteracy,  statistics  of 187 

Impeachment 273 

Import  duties  in  various  countries. . .187 

India 89 

Indiana,  map  of 99 

Indian  country,  the 185 

Indian  Territory,  map  of 102 

Indian,  the  American 187 

India  rubber 227 

Indelible  ink 337 

Indentures 400 

Independence,  declaration  of 149 

Independence,  war  of 152 

Indigestion 313,  322 

Indorsement  of  notes 237 

Infamous  crimes  in  law 284 

Infants,  artificial  feeding  of. 32| 

Inflamed  eyes 314 

Inflammation  of  the  bowels 313 

Inflammation  of  the  bladder 313 

Inflammation  of  the  brain 313 

Inflammation  of  the  kidneys 313 

Inflammation  of  the  liver 313 

Inflammation  of  the  lungs 313 

Inflammation  of  the  stomach 314 

Inflammatory  sore  throat 314 

Influenza 314 

Ink,  indelible 337 

Inks,  printing 392 

Inland  seas,  area  of,  etc 259 

Inns,  hotels  and  boarding-houses,  the 

law  of...... 249 

Insanity,  causes  of,  etc 231 

Insects,  to  destroy. .340 

Installment  note .264 

Insurance .295 

Insurance  company,  largest. 13 

Interest  accumulation. . ...........  .300 


441 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


Interest  laws 265 

Interest  rules 301 

Interesting  facts  of  science,  etc 2^ 

Interlineations  in  deeds 246 

Intermittent  fever 314 

Internal  revenue 298 

Inter-State  commerce  law 293 

Inundations 192 

Iowa,  map  of 103 

Ireland 72 

Ireland,  evictions  in 181 

Iron — See  bar  iron^  cast  iron  and 
wrought  iron . 

Iron  and  wood,  weight  of 376 

Iron  ore,  first  discovered 12 

Italy 77 

Itch .......314 

Jackson’s  administration 157 

James,  St 343 

Japan 89 

Jaundice 314 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  administration  of.  153 

Jesuits,  order  of,  founded 10 

Johnson’s  administration. 167 

John,  St 343 

Johnstown  flood 192 

Joint  life  policies 296 

Jude,  St. . 343 

Kansas,  map  of 106 

Kentucky,  map  of 107 

Kerosene  first  used  for  illuminating.  11 

Khiva  and  Bokhara 88 

Kidneys,  inflammation  of  the 313 

Knights  of  Labor 189 

Knives,  first  used 12 

Know-N  othings 165 

Koran,  the 346 

Labor  congress,  national 189 

Labor,  Federation  of 189 

Labor,  organized,  in  the  U.  S 188 

Labrador. 112 

Lake  Superior 17 

Landlord  and  tenant 241 

Land  measure 351 

Land  measure  (U.  S) .282 

Land  monopoly 186 

Lamp  chimneys,  to  toughen 338 

Language  of  flowers 413 

Language  of  gems 414 

Languages,  name  of  God  in  48 19 

Languages,  number  of. 9 

Lantern  signals 304 

Larceny,  grand  and  petty 284 

Lavender  water 335 

Law  (business)  in  brief 232 

Law,  constitutional 273 

Law,  criminal 284 

Law  relating  to  farms,  etc 243 

Laws  of  chance 294 

Lead,  compression  of. 62 

Leads  and  slugs 402 

442 


Leads  for  book  work 404 

Lead  pipe,  sizes  and  weights  of 366 

Leads  for  newspapers 403 

Lead,  sheet,  weight  of. 357 

Leap  years 14 

Leases 241 

Lease,  short  form  of. 262 

Legacies 253 

Legal  advice 232 

Legal  forms 260 

Legal  tender 273 

Leipsic  fair,  the 226 

Leprosy 227 

Letter  combinations 191 

Letter  writing 42 

Liberty,  Bartholdi’s  statue  of 16 

Liberty  party,  the 161 

Libraries,  statistics  of. 15 

Library,  first  American 12 

Library,  largest 14 

Lien  laws 244 

Life  average  for  professions 225 

Life,  average  of 228 

Life  insurance,  first 10 

Lightning  and  sunstroke 329 

Light,  velocity  of 11 

Limitation,  statutes  of 265 

Limited  payment  life  policies 296 

Lime,  weight  of 375 

Lincoln’s  administration 106 

Lincoln,  assassination  of 10 

Lisbon  earthquake 4O8 

Liver  complaint 312 

Liver,  inflammation  of  the 313 

Load  upon  floors 375 

Locomotive,  cost  of  a 303 

Locomotive,  largest 16 

Locomotive  whistle  signals 305 

Logs  reduced  to  inch  board  measure.357 

Loisette’s  system  ot  memory 20 

London  fire 192 

Looseness  of  the  bowels 314 

Lots  and  fields,  contents  of 353 

Louisiana,  map  of 110 

Louisiana  purchase 153 

Luke,  St 343 

Lumber,  etc.,  weight  of 373 

Lumber,  to  find  quantity  of,  in  a log.354 

Luminous  paint. 43 

Lungs,  inflammation  of  the 313 

Luxemburg 76 

Macedon  (history  of) 194,195 

Madison’s  administration 153 

Mails,  money  lost  in 273 

Maine,  map  of 111 

Majority,  age  when  attained 276 

Malta 80 

Manhattan,  origin  of  name 365 

Manitoba 109 

Manitoba,  map  of 71 

Mankind,  races  of 65 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


Mansion,  costliest 17 

Man,  tallest.... 14 

Marble  slabs,  weight  of 376 

Marine  insurance 297 

Mark,  St 343 

Marriage  and  divorce 255 

Marriage,  woman’s  chances  of 409 

Married  women,  rights  of 257 

Maryland,  map  of 114 

Masonry,  weight  of 3/6 

Mason  work 363 

Massachusetts,  map  of 115 

Match,  first  lucifer 11 

Matthew,  St . -343 

Matthias,  St 343 

Mauritius 108 

Mayflower’s  passengers,  the 410 

Mayhem 284 

Measles 314,  322,  325 

Measurement,  type,  by  square  inch’s.404 

Measures  of  capacity 351 

Measures,  the  meaning  of 349 

Meat,  loss  of,  in  cooking 331 

Medicine  and  hygiene .312 

Medicine,  doses  of 330 

Medicines  for  the  horse 345 

Meerschaum 11 

Memory,  Loisette’s  system  of 20 

Menstruation. ...  314 

Metals,  combinations  of 392 

Metric  tables,  handy 349 

Metric  weights  and  measures 348 

Mexico 117 

Mexico,  map  of 162 

Mexico,  war  with 11,  161 

Michigan,  map  of 118 

Militia,  State 274 

Mind  cure,  the 426 

Mineral  lands  (mining  laws) 268 

Mines,  largest  and  deepest 16 

Mining  laws 267 

Minnesota,  map  of 119 

Mirrors,  glass,  first  made 11 

Misquotations 432 

Mississippi,  map  of 122 

Mississippi  river 18 

Missouri  compromise 156 

Missouri,  map  of. 123 

Mixing  inks  and  paints 392 

Mold,  to  prevent 337 

Monarchsand  their  end 288 

Money,  Roman,  in  New  Testament.  189 
Money,  time  in  which  it  doubles. . .300 

Money,  value  of  foreign 347 

Monkey  wrench,  the 15 

Monopoly,  land 186 

Monroe  doctrine,  the 156 

Monroe,  James,  administration  of. . .156 

Montana,  map  of 126 

Mouth  wash 333 

Monuments,  height  of 184 


Monument,  highest 14 

Mormons,  arrival  of 12 

Mortgage,  form  of 261 

Mortgages 247 

Mosquitoes,  to  keep  out 339 

Moths,  to  get  rid  of 340 

Mottoes  of  the  States 136 

Mountain,  highest 18 

Mountains,  highest  range 9 

Mrs.  Partington,  the  original 349 

Mucilage 335 

Mumps 314,  323 

Murder,  degrees  of ••284 

Musical  notes  first  used 11 

Mustache  grower 334 

Mysticism 425 

Nails  and  spikes 359 

Nails  required  for  different  kinds  of 

work 360 

Names  and  their  meaning 420 

Names  of  the  States 133 

Napoleon  1 9 

N ares’  expedition .125 

Natal 101 

Native  American  party 161 

Natural  bridge,  highest 13 

Naturalization 275 

Natural  sines,  etc 401 

Nature’s  wonders,  some  of 231 

Navy  in  the  civil  war,  the 176 

Navy,  salaries  of  officers 145 

Nebraska,  map  of 127 

Nebular  hypothesis 64 

Needles  first  used 12 

Negotiable  paper 232,  233,  236 

N ervousness 314 

Netherlands,  the 73 

Nettlerash 323 

Nevada,  map  of. . . .130 

New  Brunswick 109 

Newfoundland 112 

New  Guinea 100 

New  Hampshire,  map  of 131 

New  Jersey,  map  of 134 

New  Mexico,  map  of 135 

New  South  Wales 96 

Newspaper  measure,  standard 402 

Newspapers 14 

Newspapers  in  U.  S 15 

Newspapers,  number  of -189 

N e wspapers,  sizes  of 4U4 

Newspaper  type  measurement 403 

New  York  fire 192 

New  York,  map  ot 138 

New  Zealand 97 

Niagara  Falls  14,  357 

Niagara,  horse-power  of 227 

Nicknames  of  cities 140 

Nicknames  of  States,  etc 137 

Nicotine,  proportion  in  tobacco 227 

Nijni-Novgorod,  the  fair  of 226 


443 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX, 


Non-forfeiting  policies 296 

North  America,  map  of 66 

North  Carolina,  map  of 139 

North  Dakota,  map  of 87 

Northeast  passage 125 

N orthwest  T erritory 109 

Norway  and  Sweden. . . . 76 

Nose,  bleeding  from  the 327 

Note,  joint  promissory 263 

Note  not  negotiable 263 

Note  payable  at  bank 263 

Note  payable  by  installments 264 

Note  payable  on  demand 263 

Note  with  surety 263 

Note,  promissory,  form  of 263 

Notes  and  negotiable  pape*-.232,  233, 236 

Nova  Scotia 112 

Nullification  ordinance 157 

Obelisks,  Egyptian 410 

Ocean,  depth  of  the 272 

Oceania 92 

Ocean  passage,  quickest 14 

Oceans,  dimensions  of 259 

Odor,  to  remove  the,  from  a vial. . . .3^ 

Ohio,  map  of 142 

Ontario,  map  of 67 

Open  policies 297 

Opium 229,  339 

Orange  Free  State 101 

Order,  250  points  of 190 

Oregon,  map  of 143 

Oregon,  reoccupation  of 161 

Organized  labor  in  the  U.  S 188 

Overflows,  great 192 

Ox,  largest 17 

Pacific  coast,  the 116 

Painting  and  glazing 370 

Paint,  luminous 43 

Paint,  to  remove,  fVom  window  glass.338 

Paints,  mixing  392 

Palestine 85 

Palpitation  of  the  heart 314 

Panics,  great  financial 182 

Paper,  invention  of 9 

Paper  money,  circulation  of 13 

Paper,  book  and  print,  sizes  of 406 

Papers,  flat,  common  sizes  of 404 

Paraguay 124 

Paris 14 

Park,  largest  in  U.  S 12 

Park,  the  most  extensive 12 

Parliamentary  law. 190 

Partington,  the  original  Mrs 349 

Partnership,  the  law  of 238 

Paste,  a brilliant 335 

Paste,  acid-proof. 336 

Paste,  a perpetual. 335 

Paste,  a strong 335 

Paste,  a sugar. 335 

Paste  for  papering  boxes 334 

Paste  for  printing*office. . .336 


Paste  for  scrap-books 335 

Paste,  paper  and  leather 335 

Paste  to  fasten  cloth  on  wood 335 

Patents,  how  to  obtain 270 

Paul,  St.... 343 

Pennsylvania,  map  of 146 

Pens,  first  steel H 

Perjury 284 

Persia 88 

Persia  (history  of) 194 

Personal  liberty  laws 164 

Peru 121 

Philip,  St.  343 

Phonograph,  invention  of. 9 

Phonograph,  the 415 

Photographs  first  produced. ... 10 

Physical  exercise 309 

Pianoforte,  invention  of. ]2 

Piano  polish 419 

Pierce’s  administration 164 

Piles 314,  323 

Pipe,  block  tin 367 

Pipe,  diameter  and  capacity  of. 389 

Pipe,  lead,  sizes  of,  etc 366 

Pitch,  lake  of 353 

Plague,  London 9 

Plagues,  remarkable 183 

Planetary  system,  elements  of  the . . 63 

Plank  measurement  table 355 

Plants  to  an  acre 351 

Plasterers,  facts  for 362 

Plastering,  putty  for 362 

Plate  glass 370 

Plato’s  definition  of  man 390 

Plumbers,  etc.,  useful  tables  for 366 

Poetry,  gems  of 428 

Poison  for  bugs .340 

Poisons  and  their  antidotes 329,  345 

Polar  exploration 125 

Polish  for  shirt  bosoms 339 

Political  history  (U.  S.) 149 

Polk’s  administration 161 

“Poor  Man’s  Region” .342 

Popes 228 

Popular  vote  for  presidents 279 

Population  of  American  cities 129 

Population  of  Europe,  increase  of. . .144 
Population  of  principal  countries...  68 
Population  of  States — See  maps. 

Population  of  U.  S 113 

Population  of  U.  S.,  increase  of 144 

Portraits  on  bank  notes  and  postage 

stamps 148 

Portugal 73 

Portuguese  colonies  in  Africa 104 

Postage  stamps,  first  useil 9 

Postage  stamps,  portraits  on 148 

Postal  information 433 

Post-office,  first  established 11 

Pottery 10 

Poultry,  300  facts  about,. 341 


444 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX, 


Power  of  attorney,  form  of 261 

Power,  table  of  transmission  of,  by 

wire  ropes 388 

Practical  calculations 350 

Preferred  stock 289 

Prescriptions 315 

Preserving  wood 419 

Presidency,  legal  qualifications  for 

the.......  274,277 

Presidential  election,  the 276 

Presidential  election  statistics 279 

Presidential  succession 277 

Presidents  of  the  U.  S.  (table) 169 

Pressure  of  the  atmosphere. . . ...  .389 

Pressure  of  water 389 

Price  and  cost  marks 300 

Prickly  heat,  cure  for, 334 

Prince  Edward  Island ...  112 

Printers,  useful  information  for 402 

Printing,  chronology  of 11 

Printing  inks,  mixing  of 392 

Printing-office  paste 336 

Prognostications,  weather 407 

Promissory  note,  form  of. 263 

Pronunciation,  rules  of 36,37 

Prussia  (history  of) 201 

Public  debt,  principal  of  the. 184 

Public  lands,  titles  to,  how  acquired. 282 

Public  schools,  first 10 

Publishers,  useful  information  for. . .402 

Pulleys  for  physical  exercise 311 

Pump  cylinders 389 

Pumps,  efficient  working  of. 389 

Pumps,  double-acting 390 

Punctuation 41 

Pungents,  volatile  salts  for 334 

Putty  for  plastering 362 

Pyramid  of  Cheops 227 

Pyramid  of  Ghizeh 17 

Quebec,  map  of 70 

Queensland 96 

Quinsy ; 314 

Quit  claim  deed,  form  of 261 

Rabbits 227 

Races  of  mankind 05 

Railroad  construction  table 360 

Railroading,  twenty  points  on  Amer- 
ican  303 

Railroads  and  transportation 303 

Railroad  signals 304 

Railroads,  speed  on .....305 

Railways,  miles  of  in  U.  S 303 

Railway  to  the  sun 169 

Rails  required  per  mile  (table) 360 

Rails,  steel,  duration  of 303 

Ramphorhyncus,  the 365 

Rank  of  States — See  tnaps. 

Rats,  destruction  of 339 

Rats,  how  to  get  rid  of 191 

Razor-strop  paste.* 334 

Reaumur  thermometer. .306 


Recipes,  etc * i 33.1 

Reconstruction  (Southern) 161,  167 

Red  River  settlement 109 

Redwood  trees  of  California 301 

Religion — See  various  countries. 

Religion  in  America .185 

Religious  denominations 228 

Republican  party,  the 152 

Reserve  (insurance) 296 

Returning  board  system,  the 167 

Rheumatism 314 

Rhode  Island,  map  of 147 

Rickets. 315 

Rifle  ball,  velocity  of 10 

Right  of  dower,  the 255 

Rights  of  married  women 257 

Ringworm 315 

Rivers,  flow  of 11 

Rivers,  longest 18 

Road,  the  rule  of  the 419 

Roman  Catholic  hierarchy 228 

Roman  money 189 

Rome,  founded 9 

Rome  (history  of) 195 

Roofers,  hints  for 368 

Roof,  wall  and  floor  measure 363 

Rose  water 334 

Rotheln 325 

Royalties  paid  authors 225 

Rubber  boots,  cement  for 423 

Rubber,  India 227 

Rubble 363 

Rule  of  the  road,  the 419 

Russia,  European 80 

Russia  in  Asia *. 92 

Sacred  College,  the 228 

Safe  doses  of  poisonous  drugs 331 

Salaries,  big 363 

Salaries,  government 

Salts,  volatile 334 

San  Francisco,  great  fire  at 192 

San  Marino 376 

Santiago,  great  fire  at 192 

Savings  accumulations 300 

Scalds  and  burns 326 

Scantling  and  timber  measure 356 

Scarlet  fever 315,325 

School,  largest 18 

Scotland 69 

Scrofula 315 

Scurvy 315 

Seas,  inland,  largest 9 

Seattle,  great  fire  at 192 

Secession,  first  proposer  of 342 

Seeds,  quantity  required  for  plant- 
ing  352 

Serfdom  in  Austria 180 

Serfdom  in  Russia. 180 

Serfs,  German. ...  181 

Settlement,  first  in  America 12 

Settlement  of  American  cities. 129 

445 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


Settlement  of  States — See  7naps. 

Seven  sages 14 

Seven  wise  men,  sayings  of  the 358 

Seven  wonders  of  the  world 15 

Sewing  machine,  first  patented 11 

Shampoo,  liquid 333 

Shaving  compound 334 

Sheep  and  goats,  to  tell  age  of 344 

Shingles,  number  required  in  a roof.368 

Ship,  largest 15 

Shirt  bosoms,  enamel  for 339 

Shocks,  violent 328 

Shoemaker’s  measure 409 

Shoes,  to  make  waterproof. 338 

Short  interest  rules 301 

Short  rates  (insurance) 295 

Siam 92 

Sickness,  ratio  of 228 

Signal  Service,  U.  S 411 

Silver,  a wash  for  cleaning 338 

Silver  dollar,  the  standard 424 

Simon  Zealot,  St 343 

Sines,  tangents,  etc 401 

Sinks  and  drains,  to  disinfect 337 

Skull,  measurement  of  the, 230 

Skylights 370 

Slates,  number  of,  per  square 368 

Slavery  and  serfdom 179 

Slavery,  first  established 11 

Slavey  in  the  U.  S 180 

Sleeping-cars,  cost  of 303 

Sleeping-cars,  first  in  use 303 

Smallpox 315,  325 

Smallpox  epidemics 225 

Smelling-salts,  inexhaustible 334 

Smoke  stains,  to  remove 336 

Soap,  first  manufactured 10 

Solar  system,  the 63 

Sore  throat,  inflammatory 314 

Sound,  velocity  of 9 

South  Africa 101 

South  African  Republic. . . 101 

South  America 117 

South  America,  map  of 66 

South  Australia 96 

South  Carolina,  map  of 139 

South  Dakota,  map  of 87 

Spain 72 

Spanish  America  (history  of) 204 

Sparrow,  the  English 140 

Specific  gravity  of  various  substances.  394 

Spectacles,  invention  of 10 

Speed  on  railroads 305 

Spelling,  short  rules  for. 41 

Spherical  shells,  to  find  weight  of. , .379 

Spikes  and  nails 359 

Spikes,  railroad 360 

Spirits,  when  ‘'prooC* 230 

Sprains 323 

Shrubs,  plants  or  trees  to  an  acre. . . .351 
Squatter  sovereignty 165 


Squares  and  cubes,  tables  of. , .396 

Stage  favorites 283 

Stains,  to  remove 336 

Stains,  to  remove,  from  furniture 338 

Standard  time 424 

Starch,  percentage  of,  in  food 331 

State  and  Territorial  capitals 145 

State  elections,  when  held 278 

States,  mottoes  of 136 

States,  names  of 133 

States,  nicknames  of 137 

Statistics  (U.  S.)  in  a nutshell 141 

Statutes  of  limitations 265 

Steamboating 305 

Steam  engine,  first 12 

Steam  engines 386 

Steamer,  first  to  cross  Atlantic 10 

Steam  piston,  to  find  area  of 389 

Steel  rails,  duration  of .303 

Steel,  tensile  test  of 394 

Stephens,  Alexander  H 166 

Sterility 225 

St.  Helena 108 

St.John,  great  fire  at.. 192 

Stock  investments  explained 289 

Stomach-ache 321 

Stomach,  inflammation  of  the 314 

Stock,  food  for 351 

Stolen  property 284 

Stones,  weight  of 376 

Storm  clouds,  velocity  of IQ 

Storm,  velocity  of H 

Stovepipe,  to  clean.? 338 

Strength,  comparative  scale  of 228 

Strike,  first  in  U.  S 188 

Strikes  in  U.  S. 141 

St.  Vitus’  dance 315 

Suez  Canal,  the 105 

Suffocation 329 

Sugar-cane,  first  cultivated 11 

Sugar,  degrees  of,  in  fruits 331 

Summer  heat  in  various  countries. . .182 

Sunday  school,  first  established 12 

Sun  jumps  a day,  place  where 294 

Sunstroke 329 

Suspension  bridge,  largest 13 

Sweden 76 

Switzerland 76 

Symbolic  meaning  of  colors 148 

Synonyms  and  antonyms 44 

Tacks 359 

Tangets,  etc 401 

Tanks,  capacity  of 390 

Tariff— 5?^  import  duties. 

Tariff,  the  U.  S.  customs 285 

Tasmania 97 

Taxes 298 

Taylor’s  administration 164 

Teething 323 

Teeth,  removing  tartar  from  the 333 

Telegraph,  first  in  operation 11 


446 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 

A 


Telephone,  the 415  Trees,  how  to  measure. . 

Telescope,  invention  of  the 10  Trees  of  California,  large. 

Temple,  largest 17  YsTrees  or  plants  to  an  acre 

Tennessee,  map  of 107  ^ Tree,  the  largest 

Tensile  and  transverse  strength 394 

Tensile  strength  of  stones,  etc 377 

Tensile  test  of  steel 394 

Term  life  policies 296 

Terms  used  on  ’Change 292 

Territory  (U.  S.),  acquisition  of 144 


.1  I 


850 

301 

351 

13 

333 


Texas 18 

Texas,  annexation  of 161 

Texas,  map  of 150 

Theater,  first  in  U.  S 11 

Theaters 19 

Theosophy 425 

Thermometer,  facts  about  the 306 

Thermometer,  how  to  test  a 337 

Thermometric  scales,  comparison  of. 306 

Thomas,  St 343 

Throat,  inflammatory  sore 314 

Thrush 315 

Thumb,  dislocated 327 

Ticdoloreux 315 

Ties,  cross,  per  mile  (table) 360 

Tilden,  Samuel  J 167 

Timber  and  cast  iron,  strength  of. . .364 

Timber  measure  (table) 356 

Timber  rules 354 

Timber,  to  tell  soundness  of 354 

Time  difference  between  New  York 

and  foreign  cities 412 

Time  measure 348 

Time,  standard 424 

Timetable,  bankers’ 302 

Tin  box  cement 335 

Tin,  roofing 369 

Tints,  preparation  of 392 

Title,  abstracts  of 246 

Titles  in  Great  Britain 13 

Titles  of  nobility 273 

Tobacco,  discovery  of 13 

Tobacco,  proportion  of  nicotine  in.  .227 

Toothache .315 

Toothache  cure 333 

Toothache  tincture ^33 

Tooth  paste 333 

Tooth  powder 333 

Tories 152 

Torpedo  signals 304 

Trade  discounts 301 

Trade  dollar 424 

Trademarks,  the  law  of 270 

Trade  secrets,  etc 333 

Trades-unions 188 

Train*  management 303 

Transferring  engravings 43 

Transfer  of  property 245 

Transit  insurance 297 

Transverse  strength 394 

Treason 273 


Tree,  the  largest 
Tricopherous  for  the  hair 

Trillion,  a,  what  it  is 298 

Trip  around  the  world 266 

Troops  engaged  in  civil  war 171 

Troy  weights 348 

Trust  deeds 246 

Try  Pitikes,  the 346 

Tugs,  capacity  of. 227 

Tunnel,  longest 13 

Tunnel,  longest  railway 303 

Tunnels  (mining  law) 268 

Turkey  in  Asia 84 

Turkey  in  Europe 80 

Turkeys,  ducks  and  geese 343 

Turpentine,  the  virtues  of 335 

Tyler’s  administration 161 

Type,  body,  how  to  estimate  for 402 

Type  measurement  by  square  inches . 404 

Type,  etc.,  weight  of 402 

Typhus  fever 315,  325 

United  States  (history  of) 204 

United  States  political  history 149 

United  States,  population  of 113 

United  States,  the 112 

University,  the  largest 11 

Upas  tree,  the 374 

Uruguay 124 

Useful  hydraulic  information 389 

Utah,  map  of 151 

Vaccination  and  smallpox 225 

Valley  of  death,  the 13,  374 

Valley  of  the  Upas  Tree 374 

Van  Buren’s  administration 160 

Vegetables,  how  to  measure 350 

Venezuela 120 

Vermin,  to  destroy 339 

Vermont,  map  of 131 

Veto,  presidential 273 

Victoria 96 

Violent  shocks 328 

Virginia,  map  of 154 

Volatile  salts  for  pungents 334 

Volcano,  loftiest,  active 13 

Volcano,  the  largest 13 

Voting  and  naturalization 275 

Voting,  qualifications  for  in  all  the 

States 278 

Watches,  first  constructed 9 

Watches,  first  made 12 

Water  for  domestic  use 390 

“Watering”  stock 289 

Water  on  the  brain 315 

Water-pipe,  to  thaw  out 337 

Water-pipes,  protecting  lead 423 

Waterproof  cloth,  howto  make 419 

Waterproof,  to  make  boots  or  shoes. 338 
Water,  to  tell  pure 191 

447 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


^ Wales 69 

Wall,  roof  and  floor  measure 363 

Wandering  Jew,  the 358 

War,  losses  from 177 

Warranty  deed,  form  of. 261 

Wars,  American,  length  and  cost  of.  177 

Wars,  cost  of  recent.  177 

Wars  of  the  U.  S 170 

Washington  City,  map  of 114 

Washington,  George,  administration 

of 152 

Washington,  map  of 155 

Washington  monument 18 

Wealth  ofU.  S. 141 

Wear  and  tear  of  building  materials. 374 

Weather  forecasts 407 

Weather  signals 411 

Weather  signs 408 

Wedding  anniversaries 400 

Weight  in  cubic  feet  of  various  sub- 
stances   394 

Weight  of  type,  etc 402 

Weight  of  floors,  etc 375 

Weights  and  measures 348 

Weights  and  measures,  handy 349 

Weights,  miscellaneous 376 

Western  Australia 97 

Western  Empire,  the 197 

West  Indies 117 

West  Indies,  map  of. 163 

West  Virginia,  map  of. 154 

What’s  in  a name? 40 

When  a man  becomes  of  age 276 

Whig!.,. 152 

Whisky  ring  trials 167 


Whites 315 

Whooping  cough 313,  323,  326 

Will,  form  of 262 

Wills 251 

Wilmot  proviso,  the 164 

Wind  and  weather  signals 444 

Window  glass 379 

Windows,  glass,  first  used 40 

Wire  gauges ’ * ’ ’332 

Wire,  longest  span  of 44 

Wire  ropes,  table  of  transmission  of 

power  by 388 

Wisconsin,  map  of 458 

Woman’s  chances  of  marriage 409 

Wonders  of  electricity 415 

Wonders  of  nature 231 

Wood,  bulk,  how  to  measure 350 

Wood  engraving 12 

Wood,  fireproof 423 

Wood,  how  to  preserve 419 

Woods,  durability  of 393 

Wood,  weight  of 376 

Words  often  mispronounced 38 

Working  life,  man’s 225 

Workingmen’s  party, 188 

World’s  principal  countries 68 

Worms  in  the  intestines 315,  323 

Wounds  and  bruises .320 

Wounds  and  cuts 327 

Wrought  iron,  approxim’te  weight  of.380 
Wrought  iron,  assumed  weight  of.  . .381 

Wyoming,  map  of 159 

Zanzibar 104 

Zendavesta,  the 346 


448 


The  Newest  Game  , , , 

I:  ^ I i ' *1 1 1 ■ ‘ ‘ 

Takes  the  form  of  an  information  party,  and  is  proving  immensely 

popular.  The  game,  as  described  by  the  Boston  Traveller,  is  begun  by  passing  to 
each  gentleman  a card  and  to  the  ladies  small  pieces  of  paper,  which  should  be 
numbered.  Those  who  discover  the  same  number  on  their  card  and’  paper  are 
partners  for  the  game. 

Each  couple  must  think  of  a question,  sensible  or  ridiculous,  historical  or  in  re- 
gard to  the  weather,  to  be  written  on  the  cards,  after  which  the  cards  are  to  be 
gathered  together,  and  the  leader  reads  each  in  turn,  giving  a few  moments  for 
the  partners  to  consider  the  subject  and  write  the  answer,  which  should  be  read 
aloud  in  turn.  This  is  where  the  fun  of  the  game  begins,  as  many  of  the  answers 
are  exceedingly  queer. 

Those  having  a correct  answer  mark  their  card  10,  a wrong  answer  0,  and 
if  the  answer  is  anywhere  near  right  it  is  counted  5.  When  all  are  added, 
prizes  may  be  distributed  as  in  progressive  games  for  the  best  and  poorest  record. 

The  instructive  part  of  the  game  is  the  discussion  which  follows  the  questions. 
The  height  of  Bunker  Hill  monument  is  what  everybody  living  near  it  ought  to 
know,  and  yet,  at  an  information  party  held  a few  e/enings  ago,  only  one  person 
in  a company  of  twenty  was  sure  of  the  exact  number  of  feet. 


“The  Earth  is  the  Lord’s.’^ 

Lord  of  the  lambkin  and  the  lion. 

Lord  of  Ben  Lomond  and  Mount  Zion, 

Of  Israel  and  Italy, 

Watching  in  sweet  tranquillity, 

I worship  Thee! 

Lord  of  the  glow-worm  and  the  planet. 

Lord  of  dim  Patmos  and  grim  Thanet, 

Of  Jordan’s  flood  and  Highland  Dee, 

Touched  by  their  waves  of  harmony, 

I worship  Thee! 

Lord  of  the  sunrise  and  the  sundown. 

Lord  of  Jerusalem  and  London, 

Of  ruined  Babylon,  Rome  the  free. 

Awed  by  sad  tales  of  tragedy, 

I worship  Thee! 

Lord  of  the  well-spring  and  the  geyser. 

Lord  of  Jew  Paul  and  Roman  Caesar, 

Of  England  and  deep  Germany, 

Dreaming  of  wondrous  time  to  be, 

I worship  Thee! 

I.ord  of  the  lark — heaven’s  happy  roamer,—  * 

Lord  of  King  David  and  blind  Homer, 

Of  Scotland  and  green  Galilee, 

Illumed  by  fires  of  memory, 

I worship  Thee! 

Lord  of  the  dewdrop  and  the  ocean. 

Lord  of  each  heart’s  divine  emotion. 

Of  heaven-born  science,  piercing  free 
To  the  sweet  soul  of  mystery, 

I worship  Thee! 

Teach  me,  dear  God,  and  make  me  lowly. 

Purge  me  with  light,  and  make  me  holy; 

Let  me  be  crucified,  and  be 
Christ-like,  with  Christ’s  humility, 

449  Adoring  Thee!  — Wm.  Freeland. 


i 


A BUSINESS  OPPORTUNITY. 


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THE  PUBLISHERS. 


I' 


